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Airport and Ground Patterns

NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFF AND CLIMB; NORMAL/CROSSWIND APPROACHES AND LANDINGS; Crosswind Approach and Landing; SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB; SOFT-FIELD APPROACH AND LANDING; SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB; SHORT-FIELD APPROACH AND ACCURACY LANDING; Special Landing Situations; FORWARD SLIPS TO A LANDING; GO-AROUND; STEEP (CONSTANT ALTITUDE) TURNS; Descending Turns; RECTANGULAR COURSE; S-TURNS; TURNS AROUND A POINT;

AREA OF OPERATION
TAKEOFFS, LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS

A. Task: NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

REFERENCES: AC 61-21; airplane Handbook and Flight Manual

NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFFS
Vy + 10 and - 5 knots

P 1. Know elements of normal and crosswind takeoff and climb, positions flight controls, flaps, clears, runway alignment,
P 2. CHECKLIST, center line, smooth power, gauges, directional control, rotation speed, Vy attitude within 5 kts., trim, (flaps/gear if any) alignment, completes C H E C K L I S T

EX Takeoff elements, clearing, alignment, rotation, climb, airspeeds, configuration, emergency. May need to discuss crosswind if none exists. Complete pre-takeoff checklist. Windows, belts, doors, tower frequency, transponder ON, time check, trim set, emergency CHECKLIST. Review communications, departure course, first checkpoint, next frequency. Monitor tower frequency. Contact tower before leaving runup area; get time check. "Taxi closer and hold; taxi into position and hold; cleared for immediate takeoff", are common ATC directives. Acknowledge and comply with the first two if approach is clear. Refuse any clearance for immediate takeoff unless you are really ready.

When cleared, turn plane to clear base and final approach areas while taxiing smoothly to align with the runway center line. Apply smooth full power, applying back pressure to relieve weight from nose wheel. Use right rudder to maintain runway alignment. Set nose attitude that will give lift off at Vso. When airborne lower nose to Vy attitude, accelerate, and trim.

At 300' check engine instruments, runway alignment, and possible parallel runway traffic. Position heading to maintain alignment. Plan turns at above safe/required altitudes with headings wind corrected to give desired crosswind ground track. Keep hand on throttle until above 1000'.

If departing straight out from one of two parallel runways it is wise to make at least a 10 degree turn away from the adjacent runway. This should be done regardless of wind conditions. Standard departures are at 45 degrees. A crosswind departure is at right angles. A downwind departure parallels the runway at least until mid-field. A 270 degree turning departure over the airport usually requires that crossing the airport exceed the pattern altitude by 500'. If it is possible to misconstrue the direction of your departure it is wise to include your destination as an indicator. Expect to be judged during the test on use of after-takeoff checklist on EVERY takeoff.

See instructional material on takeoffs and departures.

NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFF PROCEDURES

References: AC 61-21, POH, Flight manual

Vy + 10 and - 5 knots

P 1. Knows all elements related to normal and crosswind operations. How are things the same and how are they different.
P 2. Holds yoke properly for wind and flaps according to POH.
P 3. Clears area, taxies into positing and alignment on centerline.
P 4. Smooth power changes to appropriate settings.
P 5. Rotates at recommended airspeed, after liftoff accelerates and climbs at Vy
P 6. Pitch and climb set for Vy climb +10/-5 knots.
P 7. Gear and flaps set as required by POH.
P 8. Takeoff power maintained to safe maneuvering altitude.
P 9. Direction and crab maintained as required on takeoff and climb.
P 10. Knows and follows noise abatement procedures.
P 11. C H E C K L I S T , center line, smooth power, gauges, aileron deflection, yoke position, directional control, rotation to crab angle, Vy attitude within 5 kts., trim, (flaps/gear if any), alignment, C H E CK L I S T .

EX Takeoff elements such as elevator deflection, yoke pressure, lift off rotation, crabbing, alignment, climb, airspeed, ground track wind allowances in turns and headings.

Complete pre takeoff checklist. Windows, belts, doors, tower frequency, transponder ON, time and wind checks, emergency options, C H E C K L I S T , a i l e r o n -d e f e l e c t i o n -f o r- w i n d . Review communications, departure course, first checkpoint, next frequency.

Use normal takeoff procedures from previous section except be sure to maintain aileron deflection and yoke pressure sufficient to avoid premature lift off. Premature lift off may cause the plane to slide/skip sideways on the runway, raise the upwind wing, and make the aircraft uncontrollable. Hold the plane on the runway until sufficient airspeed is available to permit quick movement of the yoke and ailerons. This movement must be sufficient to get the aircraft airborne, in ground effect, crabbed, level, into the wind with rudder, and without returning to the ground. Five knots above Vso is deemed sufficient. Hold Vy and use crab to keep ground track in alignment with the runway.

Be aware that where parallel runways exist more or less crab angle may be desirable to assure clearance from the adjacent runway. Adjustments must be made to the crosswind, downwind, and base legs to adjust for properground track.

Airport patterns must be adjusted on the downwind and base by crabbing to maintain ground track. The turns must be adjusted as to lead time and angle to correct for the wind factor. Winds can cause illusions of speed over the ground that are not translated into airspeed on the indicator. Fly the airspeed.

Common errors are failing to maintain proper aileron yoke position, letting aircraft settle back down after liftoff, improper application of rudder at liftoff, failing to maintain/vary crab angle to maintain alignment, failing to maintain airspeed during crosswind turns.

See instructional material on airport procedures.

B. Task: NORMAL/CROSSWIND APPROACHES AND LANDINGS

REFERENCE: AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual

NORMAL AND CROSSWIND LANDING PROCEDURES

Recommended speeds or 1.3 Vso + 10 and - 5 knots plus gust factor, within 400 feet past selected touchdown point

P 1. Knows all elements related to normal and crosswind operations. How are things the same and how are they different.
P 2. Uses conditions of wind, airport and obstructions to select best approach and touchdown point.
P 3. Uses recommended approach, configuration, speed, pitch and power as required.
P 4. Has stabilized approach at recommended Vref approach speed and no more than 1.2 Vso +10/-5 knots + gust factor.
P 5. Smoothly performs the flying required by the airport pattern. Maintain the approach speed from the numbers to flare within 5 knots. Make smooth, timely flight corrections.
P 6. Makes touch down within 400' beyond selected point with no drift and the longitudinal axis over and aligned with the runway centerline.
P 7. Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing.
P 8. Completes the appropriate checklist.

EX Be able to explain all elements, including airspeed, flap use, and traffic safety. Discuss how you must fly to obtain a desired ground track by compensating for the wind. Tell how airspeed control makes it possible to achieve landing accuracy.

The key word is smooth. The best complement that can be paid a pilot is that he is smooth. To be smooth you must both plan and anticipate every step you will perform in the landing process. It is helpful to verbalize as you proceed. CHECKLIST

"Downwind mid-field, pre-landing fuel, mixture, gauges, altitude, track. Abeam the numbers, Carb Heat, power 1500, hold heading and altitude. Trim down three. At 60 knots, 1500' and pattern altitude, 4 count of flaps, yoke forward, trim up one.

CLEAR, slightly forward into the turn, rudder, back pressure at 30 degrees, slightly forward to level. 60 knots, 4 count of flaps, yoke forward, trim up one.

CLEAR, 60 knots rudder, slightly forward into the turn, back pressure at 30 degrees, slightly forward to level. 60 knots, 6 count of flaps or as required, 60 knots, 60 knots! 1500 RPM,

Roundout and begin to reduce power in 100 RPM increments as yoke is logarithmically brought full back and up throughout the flare. Hold the yoke full back until the nose falls by itself.

Post landing CHECKLIST. Clean up the flaps and cockpit.

With the foregoing as a base it is relatively easy to correct errors in the approach. Try to keep the power of 1500 RPM and the 60 knots airspeed as constants. Use the flight path and flaps to set up your final approach glide path. If you are ever low add full power for up to 30 seconds while holding 60 knots with forward pressure; then back to 1500 RPM. If after full flaps you are high, reduce power in increments. If still high speed may be reduced to 55 or even slower if aircraft is light.

Any drift on final must be corrected by side slip. Keep the nose parallel to the center line with the rudder and lower the wing to slide the plane into line with the center of the runway. This is half a Dutch roll. Since wind velocities vary with altitude so must your slip corrections be varied.

You should not see the runway at moment of in a full stall landing. Keep your eyes on the horizon for visual indication of ballooning.

See instructional material on landings

Aside: Only the FAA would consider grouping the explanation of the normal and crosswind procedures under the same heading. Here is my addendum for the crosswind landing. Gene

Crosswind Approach and Landing

References: AC 61-21, Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual

Recommended speeds or 1.3 Vso + 10 and - 5 knots plus gust factor, within 400 feet past selected touchdown point

P 1. The oral explanation may take place of actual execution. To demonstrate ability to fly a ground track airport pattern which compensates for wind.
P 2. Able to correct and hold final approach path, within 5 knots of approach speed, in a slip.
P 3. To allow no drift during flare, and to fully apply ailerons on the ground. Touch down to be within 400' of a given point.
P 4. Maintains directional control and yoke position throughout approach, landing, and taxiing.

EX Be able to explain how the pattern, turns, configuration, and coordination of controls differ from a normal landing.

The basic element of crosswind landing skill is the automatic application of "Dutch roll" on final. Without this training as a base little can be achieved. The next most important element is being able to fly the airport pattern as a ground reference maneuver to make possible a safe entry into final approach. You should, as you copy an ATIS, diagram the wind direction and velocity as a vector toward the landing runway. Basic knowledge of winds also tells us that wind velocities normally decrease with altitude. There is a wind a 1000' that differs from that at 500' that differs from that at 50' that differs from that at 5'.

In the airport pattern on downwind it is vital that you do not allow the wind to drift you inside the normal pattern. Such a situation will necessitate tighter than normal turns to final. This is the situation that leads to the so called deadly downwind turn. If this occurs, don't attempt to salvage the situation, go around. A cross wind velocity of up to 15 knots can be handled with 20 degrees of flap. Beyond 15 knots don't use any flaps. In the C-150 once the nosewheel leaves the ground the engineering geometry allows the wheel and faring to align with the wind. Regardless of the rudder position the wheel is centered into the relative wind. This means that during any landing, while it is better not to let the nose wheel touch before the mains, no critical loss of control is likely to occur because of the nose wheel. (Not so with Pipers)

In a crosswind it is better to have a slightly longer than normal final approach. A 90n degree crosswind give you an effective zero head wind. With limited or no flaps your angle of descent will be less than normal. It becomes desirable to maintain power at 1500 since the prop blast adds to the effectiveness of the rudder. If, after holding full rudder, you are unable to keep the line of rivets on the nose parallel to the runway center line you must increase the rudder effect available by increasing airspeed and possibly power. If the nose rivets cannot be kept parallel to the runway center line then the crosswind exceeds the landing capability of the pilot and plane. This happens. Go somewhere else or even request landing on a cross taxiway.

Common faults during crosswind landings are several. The common fault of coming in too close on downwind at a small airport is accentuated in a crosswind situation. Turn downwind and hold that leg twice as far away as you think you should and you will probably be right. Extend your downwind leg and don't get blown in. Set up your final approach slip as far out as possible and hold it all the way to the ground. Leave your power in until just before touch down as an aid for dealing with gusts. Don't hurry just because you are close to the ground. Slowly reduce the power to settle the plane and hold the yoke well over. The closer the wingtip comes to the ground the less likely you are to be flipped by the wind. Keep the plane rolling straight with rudder.

Because of the geometry of a Piper nose wheel it is vital that the nose wheel not be allowed to contact the ground until the rudder is centered.

See instructional material on cross wind landings.

C. Task: SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

REFERENCES: AC 61-21; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual

SOFT FIELD TAKEOFF PROCEDURES

In ground effect to Vy, then climb Vy +10 and - 5 knots

P 1. Pilot is able to explain the surface conditions that require specific control and power use that will allow the aircraft to lift off, accelerate and climb. Pilot knows soft-field procedure recommended in the POH and configures aircraft (flaps)accordingly.
P 2. Sets controls for wind and maximum lift while configured as the POH recommends and without stopping.
P 3. Clears area, taxis with speed to keep nose wheel from sticking. Smooth constant to full takeoff power throttle application.
P 4. Pitch attitude set to transfer weight from wheels to wings as quickly as conditions allow. If you don’t have 40% of the required airspeed by half-way, abort.
P 5. Lifts off and remains in ground effect while accelerating to Vy.
P 6. Pitch attitude for Vy which is flown at +10/-5 knots during climb.
P 7. retracts gear and flaps on establishment of positive Vy rate of climb. (This retraction used to be at 200’)
P 8. Takeoff power to safe maneuvering altitude.
P 9. Directional control and wind drift correction maintained throughout
takeoff and climb.
P 10. Complies with noise abatement requirements of airport.
P 11. Completes appropriate checklist.

EX Conditions, mud/snow over area, rolling lift off at Vso, stay in ground effect, Vy, climb, flaps up, alignment. C H E C K L I S T, configuration, yoke full back, high pitch attitude, keep aircraft rolling from run up, at lift off stay within half wing span of ground until Vy =10/-5 knots, climbs at Vy =10/-5 knots before reconfiguration, climb Vy. Trim, alignment, post-takeoff

C H E C K L I S T

Initial assumption is that the field is of unlimited length. From run up to lift off, surface is such that main wheels are getting great resistance. Yoke is held to keep nose wheel off ground as much as possible because of simulated surface conditions. Pitch attitude is held that will get airplane airborne at the slowest possible speed. Once off, the nose is lowered very slowly at first to stay within ground effect. In ground effect the plane can achieve its best acceleration to Vy. Once Vy is obtained climb is initiated and reconfiguration takes place at 200'.

Common mistakes are failing to put in required flaps, not holding yoke all the way back while taxiing on to runway, not keeping plane moving, excessive braking, failure to keep sufficient pitch attitude, letting aircraft settle to ground after initial liftoff, failing to stay close enough to ground to remaining ground effect, trimming for climb and then forgetting to raise flaps.

See instructional material on soft field takeoff.

D. Task: SOFT-FIELD APPROACH AND LANDING:

REFERENCES; AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual

P 1. Know requirements of soft-field operations as to aircraft capability and runway conditions.
2. Selects touchdown point based on aircraft/pilot capabilities, wind, surface and obstructions.
P 3. Uses POH Vref configuration, speed, pitch attitude and power.
P 4. Uses stabilized approach at Vref (POH gross speed adjusted for reduced weight) No faster than 1.3 Vso +10/-5 knots + gust factor.
P 5. Uses crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing. (PTS has this out of sequence)
P 6. uses only smooth, timely, proper control use during roundout and touchdown.
P 7. Smooth touchdown without drift and aligned with and other centerline of runway.
P 8. Uses proper configuration, control position and speed to keep movement until reaching firm surface.
P 9. Completes the appropriate checklist.

EX Able to explain how the approach and landing at a soft field is both Similar and different from a normal landing Able to discuss how the configuration of the aircraft at touchdown minimizes the effect of a soft surface.

Establishes and maintains stabilized approach for conditions, smooth appropriate control input throughout, no drift to either side. To demonstrate the approach to and a soft field landing. To maintain approach speed within +10/-5 knots. There is NO mention of an accuracy requirement. Earlier PTS guides indicated a field of unlimited length. Although this is written at the beginning of

1998, you will be well advised to weight this information against any later editions of the PTS.

The soft field approach is identical to normal until the flare. It is important to visualize the situation in which you have a field of unlimited length but of such softness that if the nose wheel should touch the ground it will dig in and flip the plane on its back. It is up to the pilot to make ground contact with the nose attitude and power application such that a nose over cannot occur.

The arrival at flare is with 1500 RPM, 60 knots, and full flaps. During the flare the nose pitch is smoothly increased while power is smoothly reduced to prevent ballooning. At the point of maximum pitch the power is increased to at least 1300. In this configuration and attitude ground contact should occur. Hold the yoke all the way back and up. If flaps are raised immediately the nose will remain pitched up longer. Power may be added to keep the nose wheel off the ground during taxi. Brownie points for clearing the runway without the nose wheel touching.

An alternative method of making a soft field landing is to leave the power at 1500 throughout the approach and actual landing. Smooth, controlled use of the yoke can allow the actual touchdown to occur in a very nose high attitude. Removal of flaps will increase the nose angle after touchdown.

See instructional material on soft field landings.

E. Task: SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

REFERENCES: AC 61-21; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual

P 1. Knows elements of short-field procedures. Can discuss the takeoff situation and aircraft performance required for a particular situation.
2. Knows and sets configuration and controls for wind and flaps according to POH.
P 3. Clears the area; taxies to takeoff position to use maximum length of runway in alignment with the centerline. (In the REAL world, there may be some advantage to getting maximum diagonal across the runway to take advantage of any available headwind component.)
P 4. Advances throttle smoothly to takeoff power.
P 5. Rotates at POH suggested speed, lifts off and climbs at Vref for POH obstacle clearance seed or Vx.
P 6. Sets pitch for obstacle clearance airspeed or Vx, and maintains speed +10/-5 knots, until obstacle is cleared, or until 50’ above the takeoff surface.
P 7. Passing the obstacle pitch and speed is changed to Vy or Vref during remainder of climb at +10/-5 knots.
P 8. Retracts gear and flaps as suggested by POH.
P 9. Takeoff power is held until safe altitude is reached.
P 10. Maintains directional control and proper wind drift throughout the procedure.
P 11. Complies with noise abatements procedures.
P 12. completes the appropriate checklist.

EX C H E C K L I S T , configuration, rolling or locked brake start,

Conditions, 50' FAA tree, maximum acceleration with minimum drag, rotate just before Vx, climb at Vx to 50' to clear obstacle, Vy for best rate, alignment.

The C-150 does not use any flaps for the short field takeoff. The short field presumes a 50' obstacle which need to be cleared on takeoff. The manual gives ground run and distance needed to clear at differing conditions such as altitude and aircraft weight. No measurable differences have been found between a rolling departure and a locked braked departure. Both require that the maximum available runway be used. With the locked brake system, full power is applied before the brakes are released. The yoke is held so that the least aerodynamic drag is produced without producing excess nose wheel pressure. Rotate slightly before Vx and establish Vx immediately since this the best climb for distance covered. A count of 10 (seconds) is sufficient to gain 50' and clear the obstacle. If the aircraft is light a slightly lower Vx exists. If you plan to fly at a slower than gross weight Vx be sure to advise the examiner. The test does not allow for any climb below Vx speed. Once the obstacle is cleared accelerate to Vy. Use the manual to determine the proper configuration.

Common mistakes are failure to configure the aircraft before takeoff, not using full length of runway, rotating too soon, climbing at below Vx, waiting too long to accelerate to Vy, and failing to reconfigure aircraft.

See instructional material on takeoff/landing.

D. Task: SHORT-FIELD APPROACH AND LANDING:

REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual

P 1. Knows requirements and procedures for short-field operations.
P 2. Knows how wind, landing surface, and obstructions determine the location of the best touchdown point.
P 3. Uses POH approach and landing configuration with pitch, airspeed and power as recommended.
P 4. Uses stabilized approach at +10/-5 knots of 1.3 Vso or Vref + gust factor as required.
P 5. Flies with smooth accurate control input during roundout and touchdown.
P 6. Touches down at stalling speed within 200’ beyond selected point. Allows no drift and airplane is aligned with and over runway centerline.
P 7. Uses brakes as needed to stop quickly and safely.
P 8. Corrects for crosswind and maintains directional contrl throughout the approach and landing.
P 9. Completes the appropriate checklist.

EX Able to explain how the approach and landing is both similar and yet different from a normal landing. Able to discuss and diagram the effect of increased flaps and slower airspeed on the glide path and ground contact.

The applicant and examiner should discuss the performance requirements of the aircraft. These figures (Known by the applicant ahead of time) are then used to determine the desired touchdown point and aircraft stopping distance Vs obstruction clearance and runway available. The examiner may

simulated a shortened runway by requiring a intersection turn off.

The short field landing differs from a normal one only during final approach and landing. On final, after full flaps, the approach speed is lowered at least 5 knots by raising the nose. TRIM. The slower speed will actually increase the angle of descent by shortening the ground covered. Once the approach speed and glide angle is established, adjustments are made with power. Ideally, as with any landing every yoke movement should be back and every power change a reduction. Aim short of your selected touchdown because even an approach 10 knots slow has some float left in it. Catch the center line for bonus points.

At touchdown, power off, flaps up and brakes. Don't over do the brakes because it is hard on the plane. Discuss this with examiner beforehand.

See instructional material on short field landings.

Special Landing Situations

P To demonstrate no flap landing and the short approach,

EX To explain why the no flap landing is not preferred. To explain why the short approach is both a pilot and controller option.

The no flap landing is now a part of the Practical Test Standards requirement. The pattern entry and turn to downwind is as with the other landings. At the numbers the power is reduced to 1500 and the aircraft trimmed for 60 Kts. Since no flaps are to be used, the 60 kts glide angle will be relatively flat. The flat glide angle greatly increases the aiming difficulty. A power-off slip can be used to correct if you are high. Being low requires full power.

Common fault to no flap landings is failure to recognize being high or low until too late. Any excess speed greatly increases the aircraft’s float during the roundout and flare. Be patient. Do not make any abrupt power or yoke changes. The hazard with being low in a no flap situation is that the decelerating approach may occur. This is caused when a power increase is allowed to raise the aircraft nose. This results in a decrease in airspeed. The decrease in airspeed will, after a momentary pause, cause the aircraft to descend at a steeper angle. Any power increase must be accompanied by forward yoke pressure (or trim) sufficient to maintain the 60 kt approach speed. The decelerating approach is deceptive both as to its causes and onset. It is most likely to occur in a no flap approach because of errors in selection of the glide angle.

The short approach is another landing procedure which serves a traffic control function. An aircraft on downwind may be posing a potential conflict with an aircraft on two mile final. The Tower requests/directs the downwind aircraft of make a short approach.

At the numbers the pilot will make a normal power reduction to 1500 or to off. Holding heading and altitude momentarily until speed decreases to the white arc, full flaps are applied. A descending turn is initiated directly to the final approach course. In a C-150 very little trim will be required to stabilize at 60 kts. The less power the shorter the approach.

G. Task: FORWARD SLIPS TO A LANDING:

REFERENCE: AC 61-21

P 1. Knows aspects of slips, aircraft limitations, side Vs forward, and recovery.
P 2. Considers wind direction and velocity as an item of slip ability and effectiveness as an altitude and direction control. Uses this skills to clear obstructions and select touchdown point. P 3. Able to demonstrate a forward slip in a landing situation. To use the slip to lose altitude and acquire the landing approach glide path and touchdown point.

P 4. Maintains runway alignment with centerline and airspeed what will minimize float.
P 5. Makes smooth recovery from the slip with correct control sequence and application and then enters the roundout and touchdown.
P 6. Touches down smoothly at approximate stall at or within 400’ beyond a specified point, with no side drift while aligned with runway center line.
P 7. Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing.
P 8. completes the appropriate checklist.

EX Be able to explain the forward slip entry and recovery. Discuss the circumstances where a forward slip might be required and how indicated airspeed is affected.

A slip is a cross control maneuver with power off and at relatively slow indicated speeds. The location of the static air intake will influence the indicated speed. The forward slip uses the side of the aircraft as a air brake which will cause controlled loss of altitude over a minimum ground distance. With the advent of flaps the skill of slipping became less important.

The C-150 and some other models have manuals that prohibit slips with flaps. It is possible for the disrupted air flow to blank out the elevator and cause the nose to pitch straight down. A forward slip should be performed with power off. To do otherwise defeats the purpose of losing altitude. The amount of rudder effectiveness available is the determining factor in how efficient the slip will be in losing altitude. A slip is most effective into the wind. A turn can be made while in a slip. The kinesthetic feel of a slip is initially very uncomfortable but grows on you with experience.

The initiation of the forward slip requires Carb Heat, power off, trim as desired for about 60 knots, turn the nose of the aircraft to a 20/30 degree angle from the desired flight path and punch in full opposite rudder as you lower the leading wing. As with all slips, the change in static air will make necessary forward yoke pressure to maintain the same indicated speed. The ratio of altitude loss to ground covered will be determined by wind, airspeed, rudder, braking effect of fuselage, and skill. In a strong wind a near vertical drop can be achieved. With a little practice the slip becomes a very controllable maneuver.

Until skilled in slips it is best not to hold the slip too close to the ground before initiating recovery. The recovery from a slip is accomplished by relaxing rudder pressure and resuming coordinated flight. Practice in slip recovery should occur at 200' initially. Lower recoveries can be made as proficiency rises.

Since this aspect of the flight test includes a landing, you should expect to make a no flap landing. This means that you can expect considerable float to occur even at 60 knots. If you are using a long runway, advise the examiner that your planned touch down point is well down the runway such as the second intersection. On a short runway it will be necessary to roundout and flare well before reaching the runway. Remember the main purpose of flaps is to avoid just this problem.

C. Task: GO-AROUND

REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual

P 1. Knows element and sequence required of go-around including those circumstances where a go-around might not be possible.

P 2. To properly decide on a go-around when situation requires without examiner prompting.
P 3. Uses full power, removes to partial flaps and sets pitch for climb at Vy +10/-5 knots.
P 4. Retract the flaps to approach (?) setting if applicable.
P 5. Retracts the gear after positive rate of climb is established.
P 6. Keeps takeoff power until at safe altitude and then power adjusted as appropriate for pattern.
P 7. Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction during climb. Will smoothly and correctly control the flight path while cleaning up and initiating climb. Use of trim specifically mentioned.
P 8. complies with noise abatement procedures, as appropriate.
P 9. Flies the appropriate traffic pattern.
P 10. completes the appropriate checklist.

EX Be able to explain the go-around procedure, possible causes, possible hazards, and the decision making judgments required.

Do not wait for the examiner to advise on a go-around. If the situation calls for a go-around, you exercise your judgment. Your ability to make decisions related to flight situations is a major part of the test. The second facet is to execute smoothly and safely.

The go-around decision should be automatic if touchdown cannot be accomplished within the first third of a runway. Another aircraft not clearing the runway calls for a go-around. ATC can also call for a go-around. Go and then ask why. It is better to execute your go around from a higher altitude than a very low one because the technique within a few feet of the runway is different and requires more precision. You should be able to execute the go-around while keeping your eyes outside the cockpit.

At a 60 knot approach speed, the normal go-around is executed by applying full power, this includes Carb Heat, yoke held locked forward, rudder, bringing up flaps to at least 20 degrees, getting climb speed and bringing up all flaps while climbing at 65 knots or best rate. Trim.

At less than 60 knots at the time the go-around is initiated requires more care. At application of power do not let the airplane climb. Hold level as you milk up the flaps. At these low speeds anticipate with plenty of rudder at power application. Do not initiate a climb until accelerating into 65 knots. Trim. Whenever the go-around is executed in ground effect the effort to hold level requires more attention.

The most common errors of the go-around are to allow the application of power to swing the nose and lower the airspeed. If another aircraft is on or over the runway swing to the right side for clearance. Hesitation is perhaps the greatest cause of go-around accidents.

See instructional material on go-around and landings.

V. AREA OF OPERATION:

PERFORMANCE MANEUVER

A. Task: STEEP (CONSTANT ALTITUDE) TURNS

REFERENCES: AC 61-21

P 1. Knows requirements for making steep turns such as above 1500’ AGL, Va entry maximum, in either direction and recovery techniques.
P 2. Performance altitude to be above 1500’ minimum descent altitude.
P 3. Uses Va or POH entry speed for aircraft used.
P 4. Divided attention while rolling into a coordinated 360° turn; maintains a 45° band +5° and rolls out on the entry heading, + 10°.
P 5. Performs the task in the opposite direction, as specified by the examiner.
P 6. Makes a smooth (quick) entry while holding yoke pressure required while dividing attention between control and orientation.
P 7. Keeps altitude within 100' and + 10 knots.

EX Explain the aerodynamics and G-force factors of a 45 deg; bank as opposed to greater or less steep banks. Discuss the function of power, speed, and rate of turn. Va or recommended entry speed, a 360 turns, rolls out with 10 degrees of initial heading, +5 degrees of bank, +100 feet of altitude, and +10 knots, does both left and right turns

The technique for making steep turns is different only to the extent that anticipation is the essential element. The entry should not be made gradually but, rather, quickly and smoothly. By locking the elbow on the door when applying back pressure you can fix the nose attitude and bank. If you leave your arm hanging and unlocked you are likely to inadvertently change pressure or bank. Doing these together in a quick and smooth sequence allows you to enter and stabilize the bank and altitude.

The bank is entered at cruise power. Lead any steep turn to the right with plenty of rudder. A steep bank entered at less than cruise power requires ever greater pressure and bank input. Two full down turns of trim will normally release most of the yoke pressure required in a 45 degree bank. Trim must be taken out when leveling off wings for recover. Because of the back pressure held in the turn a very positive forward pressure must be exerted when leveling off to prevent an altitude pop-up.

A 180 or 360 degree steep turn is relatively easy to achieve within the altitude parameters. However, once you are beyond 360 degrees at the same altitude your own wake turbulence becomes a factor. Beyond 360 you will hit your own wake as proof of correct performance. In the realm past the 360 you are most likely to have altitude problems. By holding the bank at 45 degrees the locked elbow pressure is constant. In the event you hit your own wake be sure to hold or slightly increase back pressure since the turbulence usually causes some altitude loss. It is best to correct slight changes in altitude by increasing or decreasing the bank by 5 degrees rather than by making yoke attitude changes.

Once the bank and altitude are established the horizon and sound become essential. Keep your eyes flicking from horizon to attitude indicator to heading indicator. Lead the turn roll-out by half the angle of bank and forward on the yoke. A common fault as roll-out time nears is to gradually shallow the bank with a resulting increase in altitude. Don't forget the rudder.

The 720 degree turn is not required for the test but being able to do it correctly makes the 180 and 360 seem that much more easy. Practicing steep turns at less than cruise power will improve the anticipation and yoke skills required in the maneuver. Also, the acceleration stall from this configuration is different and should be experienced.

The acceleration stall is not on the present flight test. The acceleration stall is normally experienced when the aircraft is in a steep turn at such a pitch attitude and power that altitude cannot be maintained. The bank adds a load factor that causes the aircraft to stall at a higher than normal speed. This is the only stall where just leveling the wings with aileron will initiate recovery.
See instructional material on steep turns.

Descending turns
(was part of test)

P 1. Knows that spirals over a point require constant adjustment of bank to correct for wind and wind angle while speed is constant.P 2. Trims, uses power, adjusts bank for wind.
P 3. Initiates a spiral descent within 10 knots of a given airspeed. To remain over the area in a constant radius spiral with no bank exceeding 40°
P 4. To maintain orientation while conducting emergency procedures.

EX Explain the situation as over a potential landing area at several thousand feet and engine failure occurs. Discuss the necessity for remaining over the area while making descending turns. This requires variations in bank to compensate for wind direction and velocity.

This is perhaps the least practiced and most difficult procedure in the flight test. The required division of attention between flying, orientation, checklist items, and radio/transponder can be overwhelming unless practiced. The pilot must be aware of the wind direction prior to initiation. As an EMERGENCY you must use your checklist. Make sure that you and the examiner have the same field in mind. At power reduction (engine failure) fly into the wind if known and trim down 5 times for 60 knots, or as directed. Use shallow banks and make reasonably wide circles. The most common fault is staying too close and making overly steep banks with accompanying high airspeeds. Unless otherwise directed, make your turns to the left for greater visibility. Remember as you descend the wind velocity is likely to decrease. As you get lower the normal tendency is to make your circles smaller, don't. Tighter circles lead to higher airspeeds. Just pulling back on the yoke to reduce a higher airspeed will tighten the turn. Keep the bank shallow. Try to plan your final turn to be a downwind leg abeam the imaginary numbers of the field. Throughout the procedure you should be using your emergency checklist.

It doesn't hurt to tell the examiner the what and why of what you are doing. Don't put in flaps until the field is certain to be made. In an actual situation, you can stop a wind milling propeller by entering an imminent stall. This can improve your glide ratio by up to 20 %. Leveling the prop with the starter will minimize damage. In an ADF equipped aircraft a descent over a radio station is a good practice exercise. Try 990 at Collinville.

VI. AREA OF OPERATION

GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS

Ground reference between 800 and 1000 feet with plus or minus 100 feet of selected altitude and plus or minimums 10 knots of desired airspeed.

A. Task: RECTANGULAR COURSE:

REFERENCE: AC 61-21

The new procedure has to do with entry and exit. They are both now required to be at 45° to the downwind. The exit will be as though departing the runway on a 45° standard departure. The reversal requires you to fly to the other side and enter on the 45 to the downwind or devise your own way which may well be better.

P 1. Knows elements of divided attention, wind correction, control, and anticipation required to maintain ground track when entering and flying a rectangular course.
P 2. Knows problems of course selection, wind direction and velocity, steepest bank angle, and crab angles required.
P 3. Selects ground reference area to fly pattern and still have an emergency landing area always available.
P 4. Enters 45° to downwind for left turns, at selected pattern altitude + 100’ and + 10 knots, with wind corrections for constant ground track, No bank to exceed 45 degrees. A course reversal may be required.
P 5. Uses wind drift correction during all straight-and turning flight to maintain a constant distance ground track around the rectangular reference area. Obeys FAR's and potential noise disturbance problems. Will fly a uniform course distance out side the rectangle.
P 6. Divides attention between control and ground track while maintaining ground track.
P 7. Exits at the point of entry at the same altitude and airspeed at which the maneuver was started. Reverses course as directed by examiner.
P 8. maintains altitude +100’ and airspeed + 10 knots.

EX Explain the relationship of a rectangular course to an actual airport pattern. Show by diagram how a given wind direction will require certain aircraft headings, banks, and turns to produce a desired ground track. Show how this differs from a calm wind situation and how flying in the opposite direction changes things. First pattern with 45° steepest turns to left, + 100 feet and +10 knots

Half of the battle is to select a large enough rectangle with the long side at right angles to the wind. Of course, you always know the wind direction. Always chose as low an altitude as you and the examiner will be comfortable with. The lower altitude is easier to fly but errors become more obvious. A small field or one with a quartering wind just creates problems. Select left turns unless directed otherwise. By making your first entry downwind, the wind behind you, you make your first turn your steepest and more than 90 degrees. This is because the wind has added to your ground speed and the required crosswind crab angle. The stronger the wind the steeper turn required and the greater the crab. An alternative to the steeper turn is to begin the turn earlier. One way to keep the course distance constant is to put a reference mark on the side window. While flying the course pick points along the course which will help you maintain your distance. By having a wind at right angles your upwind and downwind legs will not require a crab angle. Up wind turns will be relatively shallow and less than 90 degrees. The common fault on the last upwind turn is to do it so soon that your crosswind course is too close to the rectangle.

If you have never made a course reversal while doing ground reference be sure to practice one before the flight test. The course reversal allows you to proceed directly from left hand turns to right hand turns around a course with minimum maneuvering. It is best initiated on the upwind leg. Fly for one minute past the last upwind corner. Initiate a 30 degree 90 degree turn either left or right, immediately followed by an opposite hand 270 degree turn. If the banks are all 30 degrees and smoothly performed you will be on the reciprocal course and track from your entry.
See instructional material on ground reference and course reversals.

B. TASK: S-TURNS

REFERENCE: AC 61-21

P 1. Knows the references used to perform S-turns.
P 2. Determines wind direction and velocity.
P 3. Selects area with reference to FARs, noise abatement and emergency landing possibility.
P 4. Plans the maneuver so as to enter in left turns (This means you must start at the right end of the line)at 600 to 1000’ Agl. Enters perpendicular to the reference line. Uses line at 90° to wind.
P 5. Enters downwind at pattern altitude making constant radius half- circle turns by correcting for wind drift.
P 6. Divides attention between control and ground track while maintaining coordinated flight.
P 7. Makes course reversal by performing complete circle and performs in S-turns right turns. Exits at the point of entry at the same altitude and speed at which the maneuver was started.
P 8. Maintains altitude, + 100’ and speed, + 10 knots.

EX Able to explain the flight elements required for S-turns across a road. Discuss the wind-drift factors as they influence the upwind and downwind sides of the S. First turn to left at 600 to 1000 feet AGL, +100 feet and +10 knots

As with rectangles, the correct selection of line and 90 degree wind is important. Entry is made downwind. You should fully understand that this maneuver is the direct descendent of turns about a point from both left and right turns. The only added element is the bank reversal as you cross the reference line. The reversed bank will be the same angle as the entry bank.

As you cross the reference line look down the wing and select a point that is the other end point of the diameter. Keeping that point in mind and view, select other points around the semicircle arc. Fly the points to make the arc. Try to time the turn and arc so that your wings are coming level as you cross the reference line. Remember that the downwind turns will be steeper and the upwind turns more shallow. A common fault is failing to make the upwind semi circle large enough and letting the wind make the downwind semicircle too large. If you carefully select points along the reference line and points along the arcs as you fly it becomes easier. Don't try to fake the turns by excess rudder. Stay coordinated. As you reverse your banks watch out for altitude pop up. Anticipate with forward yoke pressure.

If ever you have the opportunity, watch for a freight train along a straight stretch. S-turns over the engine or caboose as it proceeds will give you identically sized turns.

C. Task: TURNS AROUND A POINT

REFERENCE: AC 61-21

P 1. Can discuss elements related to turns about a point.
P 2. Determines wind direction and velocity.
P 3. Selects point referenced to FAR clearances, altitudes, landing options.
P 4. Plans the maneuver so as to enter at 600’ to 21000’ AGL, at an appropriate distance from the reference point. Entry is made headed downwind in left turns. Tracks constant radius left turns for two full circles, 45° maximum bank,
P 5. Applies required wind-drift correction to track a constant radius circle around the reference point with steepest bank not to exceed 45° .
P 6. Divides attention between control and ground track while maintaining coordinated flight.
P 7. Completes two turns, exits at the point of entry at the same altitude and airspeed at which the maneuver was started and reverses course as directed by examiner.
P 8. Maintains altitude, + 100’ and speed, + 10 knots.

EX Best to explain by a diagram or circle on ground. Draw circle, put in wind arrow and divide circle into quadrants. Put in aircraft at cardinal points to show where different degrees of bank are required and where crab angle is required. It might be well to discuss what circle will look like if improperly performed. 600 to 1000 feet, approximate 45 degree banks within 100 feet and 10 knots. Completes two turns and exits at point of entry, reverses course as directed to perform in other direction.

Chose a single point that has a number of identifiable points in an arc around it. Enter downwind and abeam the point initiate your steepest bank. Fly to the points that constitute the arc. With coordinated rudder vary your bank as required. In a strong wind your wings may be level upwind. Depending on altitude and radius of the circle you may lose sight of the point. Briefly raise your wing as required to achieve your orientation. Most common error is making an e-g-g in a strong wind and making the circle too small. The course reversal is performed as before. Right turns are more difficult only because of the greater need to keep oriented. Don't hesitate to raise the wing briefly. You will probably do better if you select the point than if it is done by the examiner. At an unfamiliar point he won't be able to detect minor errors as well as if he were familiar.

Starting and Departing

PREFLIGHT INSPECTION; COCKPIT MANAGEMENT; STARTING ENGINE;TAXIING; PRE-TAKEOFF CHECKLIST; RADIO USE/LIGHT SIGNALS; Controlled Airport Radio; Uncontrolled Airport radio; Light Series; TRAFFIC PATTERNS; AIRPORT-RUNWAY LIGHTING-MARKING;

II AREA OF OPERATION
A. Task: PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual

PREFLIGHT INSPECTION PARAMETERS

Inspects using a checklist, verifies conditions meet safe flight standards

P 1. Has knowledge of inspection requirfements, items, reasons, and detection of defects.
P 2. Uses checklist as referece during inspection. All fluids, controls, security, structure, hazards.
P 3. Verified plane is capable of safe flight.

EX Fuel, contamination, oil, controls, structure, security, required instruments, ice, water, and cabin items
The proper fuel for a C-150 is aviation 80/87 with red dye which indicates performance octane. The higher number is octane at full power. This fuel is relatively high in lead content. Lead acts as a lubricant. The lead vaporizes when the engine is hot. At low power operations the lead may not vaporize and can form small beads in the lower spark plugs. This can short out the plugs and cause a rough engine. Leaning the mixture causes the engine to run hotter and can vaporize the lead beads. Leaning is used to adjust for most economical engine operation.

The 100 LL (Low lead) currently available has other additives, other than lead, that can cause shorting of the spark plugs. These additives are more difficult to burn off by leaning. There are additives that can be added to 100LL to make it lubricate and perform like 80/87 fuel.

We drain sumps for sediment and water each of which is heavier than gas. We can use higher octane fuel if lead fouling of plugs is prevented by leaning. Some aircraft are allowed to use auto fuel which vaporizes differently. All fuel has water in it as does air. Under certain conditions this can contribute to carburetor ice. Fuel is flight insurance. Fly by time and allow ample margins.

If the engine is cold or hot the oil stick can be in accurate. Oil creeps up a cold dip stick and a hot engine may contain oil not showing on the stick. Oil should be checked prior to every engine start. Metal in the oil is a sign of possible damage. Use full oil on long flights. Some oil consumption is normal, excessive use requires an engine check. Oil samples can be tested for metal particles. The analysis can show how the engine is wearing.

Flight controls are checked for security, movement linkage, and position. Piano hinges and locknuts are checked. Any flight failure of controls in flight must be reported to the FAA. Trim position should be noted both on trim wheel and with elevator at neutral. Trim should be set for takeoff. Failure to set trim can cause excessive control forces at liftoff.

Any evidence of structural damage, untoward looseness or movement, unexplainable fluids, odors, or visual defects can, in the opinion of the pilot, render the aircraft unairworthy, The pilot makes this determination prior to each flight.

Depending on flight conditions certain basic instruments are required for flight, engine, navigation and communication. If any required instruments are missing it is up to the pilot to determine the legality of flight. For day VFR a compass, altimeter, fuel gauge, oil temperature, oil pressure are required. Night VFR requires position lights, beacon, power source, and a flashlight. Class Delta airspace requires a radio while a Classes Bravo and Charlie requires radio, and an encoding transponder.

All chocks, chains, and locks need to be removed. These keep the plane from being damaged by strong winds. Making chains too tight can cause damage. Failure to remove any of the items can cause loss of control while starting to taxi. Failure to remove control locks is disqualifying.

Any water in the fuel must be completely drained prior to flight. Failing to fill tanks is a common cause of water accumulation in fuel. Water condenses from the air space of the tank. Water from a fueling source may take 15 minutes to reach a drain sump. Water should be removed from windows for visibility.

Excess water in the fuel can cause engine failure. No flight should take place until all ice or frost has been removed from all flying surfaces. Ice cannot be effectively removed except by applying some form of heat. The rough surface caused by frost or ice prevents the smooth flow of air necessary for flight. Frozen water in the control linkage system can prevent control movement. Cold grease in the throttle cable can make changes difficult to impossible.

All cabin items must be clear of all controls, unable to affect instruments (such as compass), and secured in the event of turbulence. The FAR's require that the pilot have all available information including weather, terrain, frequencies, airport elements, aircraft performance, and limitations. The soundness of judgment is integral to all items of the test. See instructional material on night flight and radio.

B. TASK: COCKPIT MANAGEMENT

REFERENCE; AC 61-21, Pilot’s Operating Handbook,Approved Flight ManualCOCKPIT MANAGEMENT PARAMETERS

Briefs passengers on safety belts and emergency procedures. Uses Checklist.

P 1. Prepares for flight in ordered sequence without useless repetition of motion. Has materials available and a planned place for everything.
P 2. Security of loose items confirmed.
P 3. Briefs passengers on use of belts, doors, windows and environmental controls, emergency procedures, uses checklists.
P 4. Organizes flighyt materisls in sequence of use.
P 5. Uses all appropriate checklists.

EX Safety, efficiency, organization, preparation, availability. Seats, belts, doors, and brakes -

The safety of any flight depends upon how well the pilot utilizes what has been prepared. Sectionals must show the entire route and be arranged and folded so that they are in sequence. A WAC chart capable of showing the entire flight is desirable. C H E C K L I S T S must be sequential, convenient, and USED. Do not put behind the seat anything you might need on this leg of the flight. Have your manual, computer, plotter, and scratch paper beside you. Have pens and pencils hanging, clipped and stuck all over. Stick your radio log where it can be seen and won't fall or blow away. Have your sectional always open and ready. The navigational log should be available as cross check and reference. Arrange lapboards so that they are lengthwise and when turned over can be read. Use pen clip to keep C H E C K L I S T items in sequence. Use 3M yellow stick pads to keep track of ATIS, X-ponder codes, etc. Write down all ATC assigned frequencies and codes. Read back for confirmation.

Have a C H E C K L I S T for every change in aircraft configuration. Preflight, pre start, start, post start taxi, run up, pre takeoff, takeoff, post takeoff, climb, level off, checkpoint, descent, pre landing, landing, post-landing, and shutdown. At the very least a C H E C K L I S T must include all that is covered in the aircraft manual. Have reminder tags for opening and closing flight plans. Have a time card to keep track of takeoff time, checkpoint times, ETA's and fuel changes.

All aircraft since 1976 are required to have shoulder harness. Seat belts must have metal to metal connectors. Pre-l976 aircraft may be expected to have retro-fit shoulder harness. It is not enough to see that everyone has a belt/harness on for takeoff. The PIC must make certain they know how to release themselves.

Many light aircraft have seats that fail to lock. On takeoff acceleration this can cause an accident. Wriggle side to side as well as back and forth. Doubly confirm that seat is locked by pressing down on locking bar instead of relying on the spring loading. A rigid behind the seat lock may be used.

Some doors have double locks or unfamiliar mechanisms. It is the pilots responsibility to assure that doors are secure but he should also be certain that passengers know how to open them.

See instructional material related to checklists.

C. Task: STARTING ENGINE

Reference AC 61-21, AC 61-23, AC 91-13, AC 91-55; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual

ENGINE STARTING PROCEDURE

External power source, clearing, checklist

P l.. PRE START CHECKLIST Pilot knows basic elements required for engine start. Checklist is available, used, primed according to conditions
P 2. Clearing Positions aircraft to avoid starting damage to anything in the area. Clears in all directions, window open, area scan
P 3. Controls, brakes, power set, on, low. Checklist sequence for start.
P 4. POST START CHECKLIST Available, used, completed sequentially.

EX CHECKLIST, key, mixture, prime, pump, throttle, propeller, magnetos- start, brakes, CHECKLIST, normal, hot, flooded, jump, hand. CHECKLIST, radio, flaps, beacon, oil pressure, power setting, amps, suction, ATIS.

The key is not put in until ready to start. It is possible for the magneto to be grounded (shorted) even with the key off and out. Some keys can be taken out in other than the off position. Most aircraft have a start position on the key switch that is spring loaded to return to the both position when released. Make sure this spring works. If the battery is weak the starter relay may not be activated or the bendix spring may not engage the flywheel. If this occurs get assistance.

Mixture is used to mix fuel and air at 1 to 16 weight ratios for best performance. If the mixture is too rich the engine loads up, loses power and as the combustion chamber is too cool the additives in the fuel can cause the spark plugs to short out. This usually occurs on the lower plugs and causes a rough engine. This condition can be corrected by leaning the mixture. Much of this fouling can be prevented by leaning during all ground operations. Running the engine at advanced power in a lean condition raises the temperature so as to melt any fouling on the plugs.

Most engines (over 115 HP) have an accelerator pump as part of the throttle. This allows priming or filling the carburetor by pumping the throttle. However, if more than two pumps are used it is possible to over fill the carburetor and cause fuel to enter the engine compartment. On starting this fuel can ignite and cause a fire. For this reason a primer pump is provided that allows fuel to be injected into the intake manifold adjacent to the cylinders. This is the preferred method of priming especially in colder weather. The primer has a 'keyed' lock which if not set properly can greatly affect smooth engine operation. Always check that the primer is locked.

All low wing aircraft, as well as some high wing, are required to have an auxiliary electric fuel pump in addition to the engine driven pump. an inoperative fuel pump is a no-fly requirement. This is an additional checklist item for start, takeoff, tank changes, emergencies, and landing.

After priming the throttle should be set so as to allow the engine to start at low RPM. The first few moments of operation do not have proper lubrication and so increases wear. If oil pressure fails to rise 30 seconds after starting the engine should be shut down. The checklist oil pressure check should be done at start, run-up, climb and periodically such as at checkpoints as a regular process.

Prior to every start the area around the propeller must be cleared. The clearing must be both visual and by saying "clear". Due consideration must be given to what is behind the plane as well. Certain runup areas have restrictions posted.

Normally foot brakes are used in holding the aircraft position while starting but a hand or parking brake can be used if their release is part of the checklist. A common accident cause is having the plane roll forward after starting because of concentrated attention in the cockpit. This is particularly likely to happen at night. The proper functioning of the brakes should be checked immediately after starting.

C H E C K L I S T should be used after starting and should include RPM, radio, flaps, suction, ammeter, brakes, and oil pressure. (Oil pressure is listed last since it takes a few moments to register in colder weather.) It is a good practice to lean the mixture after starting since this reduces additive fouling of plugs. The common use of 100LL fuel has greatly increased the probability of additive fouling, thus increasing the need for good leaning practices.

Flying is too expensive to waste time due to inefficient starting procedures. The performance part of starting should demonstrate efficiency, anticipation, and smoothness. Hurried, jerky, repetitious, and unplanned movements should be avoided. The most common fault in the starting procedure is failure to use the checklist before, during and after.

Starting with the engine hot requires using the manual recommended procedure. This usually suggests using no prime since there will be fuel fumes in the engine. The first try is the best opportunity.

Flooding occurs through over priming. Raw gas can usually be smelled or seem coming from the engine compartment. It is wise to wait for the fuel to evaporate. The engine can be turned over with the mixture full lean and the throttle advanced until the proper starting mixture is reached. The flooded start should be avoided since it is hard on the starting system. In any event, if the engine does not start within a six blade cycle of the propeller it is wise to stop and start over. The starter can overheat, expand in its casing and burn out.

The most common battery used in aircraft is 12 volts but in later and larger aircraft 24 volt systems are becoming common. The battery should be allowed to rest after every 30 seconds of cranking. Poor terminal contacts is a common cause of hard starting. Many aircraft have an auxiliary terminal which allows for jump starting. This should be done by line personnel with a qualified pilot in the cockpit. Great care needs to be exercised by all concerned. This is especially true if the jump start must be done from the engine compartment.

Hand propping of the engine is very dangerous. The best answer to this is "don't" If an explanation is required...It is usually possible only on smaller engines. The plane should be chocked and the tail tied down low to increase propeller ground clearance. A qualified pilot must be holding the brakes and the engine properly primed with magnetos on. The hands should be held flat against the blade and pulled down while the person moves his body well clear. Four tries are usually sufficient if it is going to start. If the FAA finds out, you could be in trouble due to interpretation of the required equipment rules. Item: An aircraft with a starter that requires hand propping is not airworthy.See instructional material.

D. Task: TAXIING:

REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Airplane handbook and flight manual

TAXIING PROCEDURES

Brake check, controls free, checklist

P 1. Shows knowledge of safe taxi procedures by speed, power/brakes, clearances, controls, eyeballs. Positions controls for wind direction.
P 2. Clearances and Routes. A clearance allows everything but an active runway. Stay on the yellow lines. Acknowledge and follow celarances.
P 3. Brake Check Function before and immediately after moving.
P 4. Controls direction and speed without excessive use of brakes. You cannot taxi too slowly. You should hold controls as though for 40 kt winds. Use minimum power required. Brake only to stop and turn sharply. Skill is demonstrated by smoothness and anticipation.
P 5. Avloids other aircraft and hazards.
P 6. Completes appropriate checklist in sequence.

EX speed, power, brakes, clearances, controls, markings

Most aircraft accidents occur while taxiing. The desirable speed is as a fast walk but may be slower. Excess power is required to initiate movement but is then reduced immediately after brakes are checked to allow movement with minimum power and brake use. Since the brake pads are very small, application should be minimal and smooth. Avoid riding, pumping, and abusing. Power changes must be smooth and in anticipation of requirements. Considerable power and braking may be required for sharp turns. The aircraft cannot be turned if it is not rolling however slightly.

Taxiing is a last acquired skill since it requires unlearning. The flight controls are held in such a manner as to prevent strong winds from overturning the plane. This requires positioning as though diving away from following winds and climbing into head winds. ATIS wind should be used until the wind sock is visible. Observe the wind direction as a number on a properly set heading indicator. Then hold and change the flight controls accordingly. Skill in this requires divided attention in and out of the cockpit. This is one of the performance factors integral to the entire test.

Since taxiing is done at reduced power it is necessary to anticipate carburetor ice. If the engine has had insufficient time to warm the heat application may be ineffective. Develop a sensitivity toward unexplained drops in RPM. Icing is most likely to occur at low rpm.

ATC clearances to taxi allow movement everywhere except on active runways. Acknowledge all commands or clearances that have the word "hold" in them since ATC needs to know that you plan to stop. If ever in doubt, request taxi assistance. Landing aircraft should taxi clear of the runway by crossing the hold bars. Departing aircraft should never cross the bars of an active runway without a clearance from the tower.See instructional material on taxiing.

E. Task: BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECKLIST

REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual

BEFORE TAKOFF PROCEDURES

Checklist, reviews airspeeds, distances, emergency procedures, departure procedure, checklist.

P 1. Position: Utilize minimum space, face wind, hazards, divided attention
P 2. C H E C K L I S T Shows knowledge of how the proper takeoff check will include specific items, why these items are important and how a malfunction is hazardous. Checks engine, controls, gauges, switches, (State position/reading)
P 3. Positions aircraft in run-up area by local requirements, wind and space utilization.
P 4. Seats, belts, doors, windows, security Physically check, push, move etc. Divide attention inside and outside the cockpit.
P 5. Reviews takeoff performance airspeeds, distances, emergency options, and departure procedure.
P 6. Moves from run-up area to runway area so that takeoff will provide both a clearing of the approach area and a minimum of time after clearance. asssures no conflict with traffic prior to taxiing into position.
P 7. Getting clearance and including the On takeoff final checklist of Time, X-ponder, emergency alternatives.
P 8. Takeoff: Confirms engine and aircraft performance desired is achieved prior to liftoff. Sets flaps and controls
P 9. C H E C K L I S T completed.

EX Run up area, run up, instruments, cockpit preparation, performance preparation, pre-takeoff, post-takeoff.

You should leave as much space for other aircraft as possible. Do not allow the wing to be over the hold lines. Face the wind since this improves engine cooling and makes possible release of flight controls. Make sure that propeller blast will cause no problems. Attention is carefully divided between in and out of cockpit.

C H E C K L I S T - Controls are quickly, smoothly checked for yoke position/control movement. Trim position is checked. All power additions and reductions should be done smoothly. Power is advanced and magnetos checked. Changing from two magnetos to one should cause a drop in RPM due to a decrease in combustion efficiency. If the drop exceeds allowances or the engine runs rough clearing a fouled plug may be necessary.

For clearing fouled plugs, raise the RPM to at least 2000 and lean the mixture until a slight drop in RPM occurs. A few seconds in this position will normally vaporize any fouling. If excess drop or roughness persists cancel the flight. An inoperative spark plug will be cool.

Correct functioning of the carburetor heat is indicated by a slight drop in RPM due to enrichment caused by the unfiltered less dense hot air. If the engine has not had time to warm or if the day is as hot as the engine a drop may not occur.

During the run up of the engine all engine gauges should be touched and noted as being acceptable. Oil pressure and temperature should be in the green. Ammeter should be registering and checked under load. Suction pressure should be between 4.5 and 5.4. Flight instruments should be rechecked and set.

Altimeter is set and then noted for error from airport elevation. The suction operates the gyros of the attitude and heading indicator. Heading indicator should be set by carefully noting the numbers on the compass that the lubber line is between and then set accordingly. Saying the number aloud may help avoid mistakes. The attitude indicator usually need not be reset. The turn coordinator is electrically driven.

The magnetic compass can be affected if ferrous metals are allowed near it. It has adjustment screws which allow for radio and aircraft effects. These adjustments are done on a compass rose and readings noted on the deviation card by the compass. From the North turns initially indicate the wrong direction on the compass. Any acceleration East or West shows a turn to the North that has not actually occurred. ANDS is the memory device for this.

The airspeed, altimeter, and vertical speed are part of the pitot static air system. The pitot has ram air while the static air hole admits undisturbed air. Pitot heat, alternate air and breaking glass in VSI are some in flight procedures used to correct problems. Use of cabin air as a static source causes altimeter and airspeed indications to increase slightly. (An emergency source of static air may be obtained by breaking glass in VSI.)

After all elements of the pre-takeoff list are completed pilots get caught with getoffitis and neglect cockpit preparation such as closing window, reviewing departure clearance, desired initial heading, first checkpoint, next frequency, positioning emergency checklist, and availability of charts and papers. Use the examiner as a lapboard if necessary. Don't put any possibly needed papers or computers behind you.

Due to greenhouse effect, the closing of the cabin usually occurs just before departure. Doors and windows can accidentally open in flight. This usually occurs on takeoff due to differential cabin pressures. No harm will occur if flying the airplane is attended to. Doors will open only a few inches and windows usually have limit hinges. The possible startling effect of noise and wind is the greatest hazard. If in flight closing is difficult, return for landing.

The FAR's require that all belts and harness be used on takeoff and landings and kept on required crew members while in flight. All passengers must be advised as to how to fasten and unfasten belts. All loose items in the cockpit should be secured in pockets or straps in the event of turbulence. Set all flight controls for the desired takeoff performance, obtain clearance and taxi so as to clear the runway approach area. It is not necessary to acknowledge takeoff clearance since the controller can see your movement.

A clearance for immediate takeoff is best refused unless you are ready and in position to determine the safety of doing so. Acknowledge all ATC instructions to hold. Normal takeoffs are initiated with back pressure to minimize nose wheel contact and permit lift off at Vso. This reduces wear and tear on the aircraft. Vy, best rate of climb, is obtained by lowering the nose. Climb at Vy gives the most altitude in terms of time. If insufficient speed and runway exist for safe takeoff or an unexpected event occurs in the cockpit, be prepared to abort the takeoff.

Use takeoff C H E C K L I S T to note time, X-ponder, and emergency alternatives. Place your emergency checklist in a ready position. Once airborne and an emergency occurs at an altitude insufficient to permit returning for landing then land in most suitable area within 30 degrees of heading. No return to the same runway should be attempted unless sufficient altitude for a 240 degree steep turn exists. Every pilot should practice this with power off at a safe altitude and then allow his own additional altitude as a margin of safety. You should have an After Takeoff CHECKLIST

See instructional material on training.

III AREA OF OPERATION

AIRPORT AND TRAFFIC OPERATIONS

A. Task: RADIO USE/LIGHT SIGNALS:

References: AC 61-21, Ac 61-23; AIM

Acknowledges and complies with instructions

P 1. Shows knowledge of procedures for use of radio and light signals.
P 2. Uses appropriate frequencies, limitations, emergency, reception problems,
P 3. Uses standard phraseology for airport, approach, FSS, other
P 4. Acknowledges properly and complies with instructions.
P 5. Uses appropriate NORDO procedures.
P 6. Interprets and complies with ATC light signals.

EX Limitations, 121.5, 122.2, 123.6, 122.1/VOR, 122.0 traffic area, 122.95, failure, approach control, Classes of airspace, DF, uncontrolled airport, Light signals. Since radio failure is no longer a common event the pilot skills in use of light signals is poor.

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