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PTS
Emergency and Night
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Contents
…A. Task:
EMERGENCY
DESCENT; Emergency Addendum; Emergency
Descent; ...B. Task: EMERGENCY APPROACH AND LANDING; ...C. Task: SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS; ...D. Task: EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT AND SURVIVAL GEAR;
...A. Task: NIGHT PREPARATION;
...B. Task: NIGHT FLIGHT;
...A. Task: AFTER LANDING;
...B Task: PARKING AND SECURING;
…Least familiar FARs; …Landing
Light; …Logging Time; …
X. AREA OF OPERATION - EMERGENCY OPERATIONS
Task: EMERGENCY
DESCENT
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, operating handbook, flight manual
EMERGENCY DESCENT
Reasons for an emergency descent. Leave 3000 feet for 1500 feet
in power dive as though having engine or cockpit fire. Compare
with power off nose high slip to lose altitude.
P 1. Knows and can discuss factors of urgency, aircraft limits,
and techniques relevant to both emergency descent and survival.
P 2. Recognizes the urgency of an emergency descent.
P 3. Establishes the recommended emergency descent configuration
and airspeed, and maintains that airspeed, + 5 knots.
P 4. Demonstrates orientation, division of attention and, proper
planning. No descents below 1500' or above Vne
P 5. follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
EX The nature of the emergency helps decide the best descent procedure. A major cockpit or fuel fire would require a Vne descent. An engine fire could be kept away from the cockpit by a nose high, power-off, slipping descent. A descent through an overcast of unknown base might require slowing to Vmc with power on to control the descent and hands-off rudder flying for heading. A black hole situation would use a similar descent where the surface was unknown. A descent through a hole in an overcast could be made with full flaps and power off in a descending spiral with flap removal below the bases to expedite the descent. There are probably more.
To get down quickly you must reduce power and create as much drag as possible. The emergency descent is found under Task A of Emergency Operations in the private pilot PTS guide. Unfortunately, most light aircraft POHs do not contain information on emergency descents.
There are several emergency descent procedures that can affect the technique selected. An engine fire in a fabric aircraft would give the nose-high slip as a means of keeping the fire from the fabric. If you were directly over a good landing site then a high-drag descending spiral would be best. I have tried descents with and without flaps and find that there is little or no difference in the descent times per on-thousand feet. Kershner suggests a spin down to 1000' as a good option.
In no case should you exceed the V-speeds during the flight test. Examiners expect the pilot to put the aircraft into a high drag configuration and initiate a maxim rate of descent close to but not exceeding any critical speed.
The fact is that any extended emergency descent poises an engine-damaging problem due to shock cooling. Explain to the examiner that you will terminate the maneuver after you have completed any POH prescribed procedures and established a stabilized descent. When you are faced with the need for an emergency descent you have several options that give nearly the same rate of descent for the required 1500' altitude loss.
Procedure #1
Carburetor Heat, power off or on and descend at structural cruise
speed (where the yellow and green meet). Descent should level
off after losing 1500' and no descent below 3000'. This descent
is at a relatively high speed and covers considerable distance.
On arrival at the 1500' descent point you are going so fast that
even more distance (read time) will be required for any landing.
This is not the descent you would use to get below a cloud deck.
It is visually very difficult to tell your relationship to clouds.
Clouds are all of indeterminate size and distance you are quite
likely to reach the clouds before getting below them.
Procedure # 2
Carburetor heat, power off, at white arc put in full flaps and
descend at top of the white arc. This descent will get you down
in the same amount of time as #1 but has the advantage of covering
less distance (where distance is not a factor) and your lower
speed will allow rapid deceleration to a landing speed.
Procedure # 3
Carburetor heat, power off, enter a full slip into your best
estimate as to wind direction. Depending on the wind velocity
the descent can be anywhere from straight down to an angle approaching
that with full flaps. Not to demonstrated with flaps but will
be useful information in a true emergency.
Procedure # 4
Carburetor heat, power off, at white arc put in full flaps while
initiation a turn of not over 45^ while maintaining airspeed at
the top of the white arc.
Emergency
Addendum
There is good reason for those who advocate making training
takeoff climb-outs at Vx. Vx will get you high while
relatively close to the runway. Your return to the runway turn
is a more viable option than were you to climb-out at Vy.
In any event you do not want to waste of your four seconds thinking
about what to do. Get the nose down and on the
way down make your decision. Straight ahead is historically the
best survival way. Getting into the 45-degree turn into
any wind will be the most practical way to get around with the
nose down. The four-seconds is the mathematical time it
takes a climbing C-172 to reach stall speed once the engine fails.
In any emergency, make what you do as near normal as you can.
Don't do anything new or strange. The familiar will make
things easy. In a controlled situation don't ask. Tell the facility
what you are planning and going to do. By declaring an
emergency you have gained the right to do what it takes to make
the safest operation possible.
Emergency
Descent
Now required by the PTS, the emergency descent used is specific
to the type of emergency. A structural problem
requires a different descent than an engine fire, a cockpit fire
a different descent from an engine fire and so on. At altitude
any descent is going to take several minutes. It behooves the
instructor to show the student several modes of descent.
I have timed no flap high powered speed descents as might be
used to blow out flames with full flap power off descents
for 1500' land have found that the time involved are within seconds
of each other. My leaning is toward the use of flaps
since it reduces the time and distance required for landing and
exiting. Both of these descents can exceed 2000 fpm if
performed in a steep bank. If vibration or structure noises get
worse in the descent, slow your rate and create as much
drag as you can to increase the rate of descent without an increase
in airspeed.
Task: EMERGENCY APPROACH AND LANDING
P 1. Knows and discusses which descent, approach, and landing
is appropriate to the situation.
P 2. Establishes and maintains the recommended best-glide attitude,
configuration, and airspeed, + 10 knots.
P 3. Selects a suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance.
P 4. Selects best option for field, speed + 10 knots, flies arrival
pattern with respect to terrain and wind.
P 5. Contingency options opened and selected, seeks cause of
problem, flaps only when field is certain.
P 6. Maintains positive control of the airplane at all times.
P 7. Follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
EX Able to explain emergency sequence in a variety of possible situations. Be ready to demonstrate emergency process from start up to tiedown.
For single-engine certificates, simulated emergency approaches and landings, as well as system and equipment malfunctions are specified items. Judgment is most evident when a flight doesn't proceed as planned. Good judgment during aircraft operations that are critical to flight safety must be tested and demonstrated. An example of a simulated engine failure test of judgment often occurs during low level ground reference maneuvers but can occur over an airport. The ability to determine relationships and alternatives and then make reasonable decisions is judgment. The ability to adjust one's actions to meet the surprises that come in the PTS and flying is essential. The student /instructor combination must give opportunity to develop this judgment.
Situations
--Because throttle has been misused to prime the engine the carburetor
overflows. When started the exhaust sets fire to the overflow.
Options:
1. If the engine has not started, continue to crank the engine
with the mixture out. This will suck much of the fire into the
exhaust, and use up fuel in the system. If this doesn't work,
bail out and call authorities. Use radio?
2. If engine is running, pull mixture and apply full throttle.
Use radio to call authorities.
-- At application of full power, seat slides back, door opens,
or a loud bang occurs.
Options:
1. Pull power and clear runway.
--Shortly after lift off, seat slides back, door opens or a loud
bang occurs.
Options:
1. Power off and land on remaining runway.
2. Power as needed to maintain control. Radio.
Altitude needed to safely land. May be off airport.
During climb out at best rate, the engine fails.
Options:
1. Land off airport within 30 degree of heading
2. If altitude permits (800' or more) make steep turn to airport.
240 degree turn required to make it back to departure runway.
During climb out, the cockpit fills with smoke.
Options:
1. If electrical, turn off master. Return for landing.
2. If petroleum, pull mixture, forward nose high slip to landing.
Flaps if possible.
3. In event of fire, get on the ground.
. Engine failure at altitude
Options:
1. CHECKLIST
2. An imminent stall will stop the propeller from windmilling
and improve the glide ratio. The starter can be used to level
the prop and minimize damage.
3. If descent is being made against the wind, add 1/3 of the
wind velocity for best penetration glide.
4. If descent is being made with the wind, reduce best glide
speed slightly.
--Fuel gauge on empty, lost.
Options:
1. Land. Note: Don't fly below 1/4 tanks. The gas gauge is the
least accurate instrument on the aircraft. Factors such as load,
winds, and carburation can affect fuel flow.
--Lost-possibly flew off the edge of the sectional.
Options:
1. CCCC Climb, communicate, confess, comply. Note: Don't delay.
Get on the radio and indicate that someone has misplaced your
destination. A common fault is to descend in the belief that
something will appear. Nothing so interferes with mental functioning
as being lost or misplaced.
--Partial engine failure.
Options:
1. Your first rule is to maintain positive aircraft control as
you refer to your printed checklist. Check the critical items
so that in an actual failure you will deal with the essentials
first.
2. Smoothness and airspeed control in obtaining and maintaining
the best glide airspeed and configuration is essential. Failure
to maintain just the best glide speed will prevent accurate decisions
related to gliding distance and touchdown. Be sure to consider
factors as altitude, wind, terrain, obstructions in your planning.
If you have made a poor choice of an emergency landing area,
don't hesitate to make only one new choice.
--Engine failure with full flaps
Options:
1. Get the flaps up while applying enough back yoke pressure
to maintain the best glide speed. Best power off glide speed
is usually midway between Vx and Vy. (Check) Trim down four turns
from full flap descent at 60 knots and 1500 rpm.
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, operating handbook, flight manual
SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS
Partial or complete power loss, engine roughness or overheat,
carburetor or induction icing, loss of oil pressure, fuel starvation,
electrical system malfunction, flight instrument malfunction,
landing gear or flap malfunction, inoperative trim, open door
or window, icing, smoke and fire in cabin, smoke and fire in engine
compartment, any other emergency, follows prescribed checklist.
P 1. Knows and discusses the systems, malfunctions, and symptoms
appropriate to the aircraft used. You are expected to be able
to draw all the systems given in the POH.
P 2. Takes action for simulated emergencies, such as--
a. degrees of power loss
b. engine roughness or high temperature
c. carburetor or induction ice
d. low oil pressure
e. fuel starvation
f. electrical system problem
g. instrument malfunction
h. gear or flap problem
i. inoperative trim
j. open door or window
k. structural ice
l. any smoke or fire
m. other emergency
P 3. follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
The examiner is not PIC during the flight test. The examiner test
of emergency procedures should be discussed with the applicant
before entering the aircraft. Components should only be disabled
by mutual agreement.
Options
--Partial power loss.
Possible causes: Magneto position, Carb Heat position or door,
mixture position, fuel system problem, shorted spark plug, air
filter plugged, and many more.
Options
--Rough running engine or overheat
Possible causes: Carburetor ice, fouled or shorted plugs, magneto
short or lead, fuel system, etc.
Options
Never kill a running engine. Use what power you have to get to
the nearest landing area. Descent cools, rich cools.
--Structural icing
Options
Do a 180 at first sign. Gain altitude for as long as possible
using the fastest speed possible. No flaps and do not slow down
in the air. Land hot. the ice on the tailplane is the most dangerous.
--Flight instrument failure
Options
Cover face of failed instrument(s). Proceed to destination. For
pitot you can apply pitot heat. For altimeter and airspeed you
can break face of VSI or use alternate air. Knowing where trim
is set and power setting should allow you to proceed to a safe
landing if you have learned how to establish a stabilized approach.
--Carburetor or induction icing
Symptom: rough engine caused by ice blockage of air intake or
butterfly venturi.
Options: Cure:
Full Carb Heat. Will cause additional power loss and then a rise
as ice melts. Carb Heat off will restore normal power. A climb
attitude will increase engine heat. Use magnetos to make engine
backfire. May clear ice. Try to climb, lean the mixture.
--Loss of oil pressure
Symptom: Gauge, high oil temperature.
Options:
If oil temperature is normal it may be gauge. Make precautionary
landing. If oil temperature is high, reduce to minimum power and
get on ground. Don't try to make the next airport. A partial power
landing is always a better option than a fire or dead engine.
Reduce power, check oil temperature for rise that indicates loss
of oil, get into landing area and down before engine quits.
--Fuel starvation
Cause: Usually pilot error or contamination.
Option: Cure:
Get on the ground if you have any power at all. Be sure to get
the power off for landing. Switch tanks, change fuel selector,
check mixture movement, rock the wings. Once you are committed
to landing it is better to forgo any effort to get engine running.
A sudden full power engine just prior to touchdown is very dangerous
and unlikely to continue. Many accidents have been caused by a
sudden resumption of power just as the plane hits the ground.
Intermittent engine operation will cease at the worst possible
time.
--Engine compartment fire.
Options
Shut off fuel, pull mixture, full power to use fuel in system.
CHECKLIST Nose high slip to landing as fast as possible. Another
option is to dive vertically in an effort to blow out the fire.
--Electrical system malfunction
Options
If fire, kill master. CHECKLIST Inoperative equipment check fuse/
breaker system. If alternator, try to reset, reduce electric load
and proceed to nearest airport. Check switches and amp meter readings.
Initially, shut off the master. Then turn off all electrical equipment.
Turn on master switch check for operation and problem. Turn on
one electrical element at a time and check for problem. Try to
locate and isolate problem. If problem continues shut off master
and proceed to destination using NORDO procedures for IFR or VFR
no radio procedures.
--Gear or flap malfunction.
Options
Undo what you did, first. Aircraft will be controllable if flap
positions are equalized. Landing gear up need not be an accident.
If flaps are stuck in position, trim for best performance and
proceed for landing. If flaps are asymmetric, get them up if possible.
Maintain best control and get to ground in best landing configuration.
CHECKLIST. Gear, fly to nearest large airport and use your radio.
--Door opening in flight
Options
This will not affect flight or operation except for noise. If
you do not know how to close the door in the air, don't try. Land
at nearest airport. Not an emergency. Close the window. It is
possible to close door while in the air. For hard to close door,
best option is to land and close it.
--Trim Inoperative
Options
An inoperative trim in neutral position just makes flying more
difficult but constitutes no danger. In any other position it
is best to get the plane on the ground at reduced power to reduce
control pressures and get the trim repaired.
Flying an out of trim aircraft is not pleasant but it is possible.
Shifting some weight might help relive pressure. Work with the
pressure until you can get on the ground. Not an emergency.
--Vacuum Failure
Options
Vacuum Gauge at zero. Heading indicator begins to spin. Attitude
indicator stops in one position. May be level or cocked.
--Other malfunctions
Loss of throttle control:
Control what ever engine power you have by magneto switch.
Stuck elevator movement
Use trim and power combination for control
Stuck rudder
Use doors for rudder control
No brakes
Full flaps, yoke back, ground loop
REFERENCES: AC 61-21; operating handbook, flight manual
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT AND SURVIVAL GEAR
Emergency locator transmitter, battery life, on/off/arm positions,
required inspections, battery changes, how to activate after emergency
landing.
P 1. Knows survival gear and equipment available in aircraft
a. location on/in aircraft
b. operation and use
c. required servicing
d. safe storage
e. gear according to climate and topography
P 2. Follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
The ELT must be replaced as placarded on it by date of 1/2 battery
life followed by A&Ps signature. It must have aircraft logbook
entries as to date of installation and A&Ps signature. Since
6-21-94 ELT inspection required annually as part of annual inspection.
It must be replace if activated for one hour. Data, dates and
location required information for PTS. (Flight test). Test of
ELT is limited to three audio sweeps during the first five minutes
of any hour. ELTs in storage must have battery removed.
The aircraft shutdown checklist includes putting 121.5 on the
com radio prior to turning it off. This ten seconds is used to
save the time and money that would be wasted if an Emergency Locator
Transmitter (ELT) false alarm is pursued by the U. S. Air Force
Rescue Coordination Center (AFRCC) now located on the East Coast.
ELT Update
Only second generation ELTs (TSO-C91a) can be installed after
6-21-95
Battery expiration dates on ELT and maintenance record
New inertia switch will not activate on hard landings.
Can interface with Loran and GPS
Next generation is:
Emergency Position Indicator Radio Beacons (EPIRB's)
Personal Locator Beacon (PLB's)
406.025 MHz ELT's
System can receive and download information such as position and
identification in one satellite pass.
Crash Survival
#1 survival item is to let a responsible person know where you
are going, your route, and ETA. Insurance is to make contact after
arrival. If you are not found quickly, you are not likely to be
found at all. Survival items that are nice to have, short-term
and essential for longer are:
Flashlight, digging tool, foul-weather gear, blankets, food, water,
matches and candles. A real plus would be a portable GPS, a handheld
radio, or a cellular phone. Dehydration is the worst
threat usually facing a downed pilot.
Winter clothing:
Combine high-tech and traditional materials. It is easier to keep
warm by wearing multiple layers. Inner lawyer should not absorb
moisture and wick it away from the body. 1/4 if body heat leaves
via the head. Waterproof headgear may be the most important single
survival item.
Pilots are optimists that believe bad things happen to other people.
They believe that flying is so safe that there is no need to be
prepared for catastrophe. Before leaving home you should prepare
the 'what if' options. Whenever you go flying you should be dressed
to walk home. You should have required items within cockpit reach.
You should stay with aircraft and survive until conditions allow
foraging. Short-term rescue is usually within a day. The greatest
danger is exposure to conditions causing hypothermia. The right
condition of wind, temperature, and moisture can expose anyone
to hypothermia. The body loses heat most rapidly when wet.
Making your position visible can help rescue. Make a clearing,
start a fire, and make large SOSs. Use common sense, have confidence
in yourself and be patient. Prior planning, preparedness, practice
and training will enable you to make the best decision possible.
XI. AREA OF OPERATION - NIGHT OPERATIONS
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, AC 67-2, AIM, operating handbook, and
flight manual
NIGHT FLIGHT
Preflight, aircraft lighting systems, and checklists to be covered
as part of the oral.
P 1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to night flight.
Since it is doubtful that a demonstration will be required, be
prepared to review your past night flying experience.
P 2. Inspects the interior and exterior of the airplane with emphasis
on those items essential for night flight. Preflight inspection
for night essentials
P 3. Taxies and accomplishes the before takeoff check adhering
to good operating practice for night conditions. Night taxiing
procedures and night operating practices
P 4. Performs takeoffs and climbs with emphasis on visual references.
Visual references used in night flight
P 5. Navigates and maintains orientation under VFR conditions.
P 6. Approaches, lands, and taxies, adhering to good operating
practices for night conditions.
P 7. Completes the appropriate checklists.
EX Be prepared to discuss flight factors of night flying as different
from day. This includes equipment, navigation, lighting, physiology,
weather, terrain, and airport operations.
Be aware of these differences. Preflight to include interior and
exterior lighting system. Navigation to cover emphasis on terrain
clearance, proximity of check points, and 45 minute fuel reserve.
Be able to select checkpoints that will be viable a night. Severe
VFR at night is best flying weather with 1/4 moon or more. The
night pilot is semi-IFR. Airports at night harbor optical illusions
and minimal crosswind references. Any fog or low clouds can completely
change the appearance of an area.
The most difficult aspect of night operations just happens to
be taxiing. Be prepared to ask for assistance or that the lighting
be turned up. The night takeoff becomes critical if disorientation
should occur. You should be reasonably able to fly on instruments
any time at night. Be sure you have set your gyro and predetermined
your departure heading. Know your terrain. The actual landing
is done with power on and not at a full stall.
See instructional material on night flying.
XII. AREA OF OPERATION - POSTFLIGHT PROCEDURES
REFERENCES: AC 61-21; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual
P 1. Knows and discusses importance and sequence of after landing
procedures
P 2. Taxies to the parking/refueling area using the proper wind
control technique and obstacle avoidance procedures.
P 3. Completes the appropriate checklist.
EX Able to explain positioning of controls for taxi, reason for
power to taxi and position for parking, reasons for shutdown checklist
and procedure. Reasons for securing procedure and postflight inspection.
Checklist, clearing runway, cleaning up airplane, clearance and
readback
When landing in a crosswind the controls are correctly positioned
for taxiing on the runway. The controls must be positioned during
each turn from the runway and every taxiway to configure the aircraft
for the wind. Flaps should be removed prior to application of
brakes. It is possible to lock the brakes while the flaps are
down at moderate speeds. Such braking will give a destructive
"flat" on the tire in just a few feet. Carburetor heat
should be removed during ground operations since the heated air
is unfiltered and potentially damaging to the engine. The aircraft
must be taxied across any hold bars on a taxiway or well clear
if on an intersecting runway. You should acknowledge any change
of tower frequency to ground but do not ever change until across
the hold bars. Stop while contacting ground.
Taxi on the centerline even around corners. Remember that an aircraft
to your right has the right of way. Be sure to acknowledge any
ground communications directed to you. On entering the parking
area use only the amount of braking/power required to make a smooth
turn and smooth stop.
--Straighten the nose wheel during the last few degrees of your
parking turn. Idle at 800 rpm.
--Get out your shut down checklist and follow it regardless of
how emotionally exhausted you may be. Radio to 121.5. Radios,
electrical, off.
--Magneto check, mixture out, momentary increase in throttle then
retard. Magnetos off. Control lock. Log time. Exit.
While you push back the plane check tires. Listen! Let the
examiner know that you are making a visual inspection of the aircraft
as to tie down the aircraft. Check the oil. With repetition you
can learn how much oil a hot engine holds. Get all your materials
organized. Clean up the cockpit.
Order fuel for the next guy. You might level the prop if it can
be done safely.
REFERENCES: AC 51-21, operating handbook, flight manual
P 1. Knows and is able to discuss parking and securing procedures,
hand signals, precautions
P 2. Parks carefully and properly with consideration of others.
P 3. Uses checklist to shut down engine sequentially and securing
the cockpit.
P 4. completes the appropriate checklist.
P 5. Makes post flight inspection
Least
familiar FARs 91.11
Prohibits any person from interfering with a pilot in the performance
of being a pilot.
91.15
Dropping of objects from an aircraft is allowed if it does not
endanger persons or property.
91.19
Prohibits air transport of illegal drugs with pilot’s knowledge.
91.21
Pilot may not operate or allow to be operated any electronic device
without finding out that it will not interfere with radios or
navigational equipment.
FAR 91.137
Temporary flight restrictions in certain areas when emergency
operations are underway. A pilot is required to know about these
prior to every flight by getting appropriate NOTAMS for the flight
route.
FAR 91.141 and 91.143
Protects airspace operations for public figures or space rockets.
FAR 91.187
Failure of any nav/com equipment when IFR must be reported to
ATC.
FAR Part 43 and Appendix A
Pilot maintenance
FAR 91. 43.9 (a) and 91.407(a)
Related paper work and required logbook signature for return to
service.
Landing
Light
The landing light is the only part of the electrical system
in which replacement by the owner/pilot is specifically authorized
to troubleshoot and repair by FAR Part 43. The system consists
of a power source, a safety device, an on/off switch and the
light itself. The landing light is the only electrical part that
FAR Part-43 authorizes owners to repair. Any repairs must be
entered into the aircraft logbook.
Many landing lights have been moved from the nose of the aircraft to the wings because of frequent outages caused by landing shock and engine vibration. Initial troubleshooting begins with a close look at the landing light filament. Then comes a power check with a voltmeter. This includes a continuity check of the landing light wiring with special attention to the connector from the cowling to the firewall.
The absence of a landing light is not a no-fly situation in Part 91 operations. Every pilot should be proficient at night with and without the landing light. Night currency is required within 90 days for carrying passengers.
Logging
Time
For logging purposes, VFR fuel requirements and VFR cloud
clearances, night is from the end of civil twilight to the beginning
of civil twilight. Currency is from one hour after to one hour
before. The tower turns on its beacon at sunset and sunrise. This
is also when aircraft are expected to turn on position lights
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