Page a51
Preflight and Checklists
Return to whittsflying Home Page
Flight Preflight; ...Pilot Preflight; ...Experienced Advice...Aircraft Preflight; ...Risk; ...Landing Gear Checks; ...Tires as a Safety Factor; ...Seating; ...Cockpit Checkouts; ...Checklists; ...Famous Pre-takeoff Checklists; ...Peace Sign; ...Preflight Options; ...Develop a Pattern; ...Pre-start/Start Checklist; ...Start/Post Start; ...Runup; ...Runup pretakeoff...Pre-takeoff Considerations; ...Pre-takeoff; ...Prelanding; ....Post-Landing; …Changing Terminology; …Emergency Checklists; ...Personal Minimums Checklist; …Caveats on Making Checklists; …Cockpit Management; …
Flight Preflight
--A part of all ground preparation of a flight SHOULD include a review of the checklists to be used throughout
the flight.
1) Pre-departure briefing aloud
2) Review departure and route
3) Density altitude vs. runway available vs. runway needed
4. Acceleration distance to rotation
5) Windshear conditions
6) Minimum safe altitude
7) Engine failure plan
8) Highest obstacle
9) Approach self briefing
I'M SAFE--
NO..
Illness
Medication
Stress
Alcohol
Fatigue
Emotion
--Play ... what if...
---Safety switch is...ON
----Be the best you can be.
-----Shortcuts can be lethal
------Shortcuts switch is ...OFF
-------Only proficiency ... COUNTS
---------Complacently switch is ... OFF
----------Attention is on edge of seat...
-----------Know your airplane...know it well
-----------Always leave yourself a way out...
------------Play ground games... where to land?
-------------Your usual career is best left at home...
--------------Give every situation the 'common sense test'
---------------Read safety rules of flying rules...the FARs
----------------If it's not in doubt, you don't need to prove it.
-----------------Instinct is your enemy; calm reason wins every time.
------------------By controlling yourself you can control the airplane.
-------------------The pilot is the most unreliable factor in an airplane.
--------------------As a pilot you don't need to prove anything to anybody.
---------------------Anticipate with your brain rather than react with your body
FAR 91.103 refers to weather, airport data and POH information on aircraft performance. FAR 91.7(b) refers to inspection of aircraft condition for safe flight. If a situation exceeds your knowledge or experience, get expert advice.
91.203 Operation must be with appropriate and current airworthiness certificate and registration that is visible to pilot and all others.
91.3 The pilot in command is responsible for safe operation.
91.7 Aircraft operation requires an airworthy condition. The PIC is responsible for determining if aircraft is capable of safe flight and what it takes to make it so.
91.9 No operations not in compliance with operating limitations of flight manual, markings or placards. Older aircraft do not have a flight manual so they must be as originally found on approved type certificate. Newer aircraft have manuals specific to the aircraft and serial number. The pilot must used such information to determine weight and balance as well as operating limitations.
91.103 The PIC must be familiar with all available information concerning a flight.
Risk
Some of us certainly wonder why so many pilots keep right on flying, knowing that the papers and TV are a constant
reminder source of the serious risks involved. It must be because there is a factual discrepancy included in the 'official'
cause that couldn't be determined. If the cause is indeterminate then pilots are unable to see how any pilot anticipation
or preventive measures could have made a difference.
There is, however, very positive evidence that a careful and complete preflight is a powerful protective shield around
subsequent flying activity. Preflights seem to work as they are supposed to. We are now ready to go through the preflight.
Every effort is made to minimize the wasted time and movement about the aircraft while maximizing a through inspection.
As though walking up to the C-150 for the first time we unchain the left wing. Note right main tire for yellow chalk mark
showing that refueling has taken place since last flight. (This is so that we don't have to walk over to it again when we roll
the aircraft tires for inspection.) We use a single key to open the door and place it on the floor below the trim wheel.
(A single key is not as likely to result in an accidental turning off of the magnetos as is a key ring full of keys.) (Placing
the key on the interior cowling has caused many a key to disappear down the defroster hole.)
Landing Gear Checks:
Inflation and wear, cuts and flats
Brakes for fluid, leaks, wear, softness
Wheels for cracks and bolt security
Disks for rust and wear
Pads for thickness.
Tires as a Safety Factor
Tire wear is more related to abuses and inflation than hours of flight. Heat is tire's greatest enemy. Under-inflation causes
more heat and damage than over-inflation. Use aircraft inflation recommendation rather than tire maker's suggestion.
Measure pressure only when cold. A new tire should be inflated again one day after installation because of stretching.
System failures are more related to manners of use rather than hours of aircraft operation. An under-inflated tire bulges
and covers more surface. Visually easy to detect this condition internally causes heat friction, which over a short time will
destroy the tire. Over-inflation must be judged by becoming familiar with the surface covered with normal inflation and then
judging accordingly.
Wheels are two halves bolted together. Wheel cracks are most common cause of wheel failure. Keep wheels clear makes
cracks more visible. Do not brush wheels with stiff brushes or scrapers. Brakes are designed to dissipate heat without loss
of braking effectiveness. The distance between the brake disk and the pad housing is a measure of pad wear. Soft brakes
are indicative of air in the fluid lines. An aircraft that pulls to one side may be caused by a dragging brake. Any unusual
brake feel or sound is a cause for concern.
A tire has a red dot as a balance mark indicating the lightest point. The tube has a yellow line on it that indicates the heaviest
point usually near the tube valve stem. Proper installation should align these two markings.
Braking is most efficient in slowing the aircraft and minimizing heat when braking is sufficient to make the slowness if the wheels slightly less than the speed of the tire. The tire friction will produce drag without slipping. Excess braking will produce skidding and reduced braking effect. Most poor brake use occurs during taxi. Many pilots tend to taxi too fast and use the brakes instead of reduced power to slow and control the aircraft. The constant use of brakes during taxi creates the most damaging heat in the system.
Fuel may be ordered by radio using 122.95. This is the universal frequency used at airports with towers for Unicom services such as ordering a taxi or fuel. At CCR we normally use Chevron and call the truck as "Chevron one". If the truck fails to answer contact "Chevron Base". Give your location as "East Ramp Golf two Cessna 6185K". With the new aircraft cover you should check the logbook to ascertain if any remark is there that would make the aircraft unairworthy.
Preset radios and transponder. Remove the control lock, turn on the master, check the fuel gauges, and say, "Clear flaps" before lowering the flaps. (Get fuel as necessary.) The "regulations" requires that a fuel gauge be accurate ONLY when reading full and empty. Open right door and get fuel sump cup. Drain and check fuel in left tank. Place sump cup in right seat. (You don't need to carry it) Check wheel faring (brake lines if visible), front and back side of left flap and antennas. Check empennage, horizontal and vertical stabilizer, elevator hinges and movement on left side. Remove tail chain. Check rudder hinges and movement. Check elevator (under side, too) and trim hinges and movement on right side. Check empennage. Check back side of right flap, front and back of right flap hinges, counterweight and movement. Wing tip and right leading edge. Unchain right wing, check underside of right flap and drain right wing sump. Return sump cup. Check right fuel tank and cap.
Check nose wheel faring, strut, and damper, inside engine compartment, loosen oil stick with left hand, remove with right hand, clean with left hand, re-insert and check for 4 quarts minimum. Pull fuel strainer with right hand and clean left hand with gasoline. Oil stick can be hung on prop blade while adding oil. (Be sure not to lose seal off lid of bottle into engine.) Don't make oil cap too tight. Check leading edge of propeller, spinner mounting plate for cracking, and cowling inlets. Make sure air filter is secure and intact. Watch for 'working rivets, those that have gray powder around them. Roll aircraft at least 40 inches to check tires. If diagonal cord shows in a smooth area the tire is unsafe for flight. Check static air hole, overflow, pitot tube, and stall warner. Don't blow into any aircraft instrument intake hole. Check left fuel tank and cap. Check left leading edge and tip. Check left aileron front back, movement and counterweight. Rocking the wings and gently moving horizontal stabilizers is a good way to pick up internal damage via sound. Do the 'squat test' to make sure everything is clear of the aircraft. The only difference in pre-flighting a C-172 is the luggage door and alternator belt.
The preflight requires the student to be aware of the possible causes of accidental propeller movement. That the key may possibly be removed from other than the off position. That the magneto can be otherwise grounded and allow a short movement of the propeller to start the engine. That, while there is no absolute safe way to turn the propeller, backwards is the safest. (Do not turn propeller of C-150 backwards). The only time you can have too much fuel is when you are on fire. From full tanks the maximum safe flight time of a C-150 is three hours. The tanks are full and the caps are tight only when checked by the pilot. No C-150 flight should be undertaken with less than four quarts of oil. Failure to monitor a radio frequency prior to transmitting as well as being poorly prepared to talk impinge on the flight safety of everyone. Poor use of the radio is the most common failing of the incompetent pilot.
Throughout the first preflight the instructor keeps up a running commentary into the tape recorder as to the why's, wherefore's and how to's for each check. On successive flights additional operational checklists are added. The first student effort is usually pages long. The second effort is more concise. For the third effort the instructor provides a twice folded 4 x 6 card cut half way through one fold. This card can be made into a compact but complete checklist covering all operations from preflight to shutdown. Arrows can be used below each list to indicate direction to fold card. Emergency list is in outlined red. Finally the pilot developed list is crosschecked with the manual approved one to make sure that all items are covered.
Where the student has previous flight experience the same process is used but the pilot is allowed to build on his experience. I feel it is vital that a pilot have his own personally developed checklist for every aircraft flown. Build on first learned skills and habits. The published and universal lists omit or rearrange the order of items so that mistakes often occur. The checklist must contain all items from the aircraft manual BUT there are many supplementary items of radio, transponder, leaning, taxiing, braking, and clearing that are not mentioned. Time is never wasted giving a careful preflight.
Confirm ability to get full use of rudder and brakes. Use cushions as required. Adjust so you can see instruments, over the glare shield, under the wing of Cessnas and below the aircraft. Don't sit where head movements are required to see instruments related to IFR control. Be aware that having to reach to rotate head can induce vertigo. Always confirm locking of seat rails. Consistent setting of the seat will make your flying more consistent.
Pilots compensate for an aircraft cockpit poor design and layout. Experienced pilots, who have been exposed to more aircraft of all ages, are able to compensate better than the neophyte. Any pilot who first sits in a cockpit should make a mental and physical survey of controls and instruments. The direction things move are better when consistent with your past training. Some older VOR heads are read from the bottom not the top. Same with older heading indicators which are built like, and read like a compass.
All switches, knobs, handles, need to be checked for identification, operation, and function. The controls may obstruct at least one or more instruments or knobs. A gauge that is hidden or obscured is a no-fly consideration. It is not unusual to have one side of an instrument face be hidden from one seat or the other. Sit in the cockpit and confirm you know what every instrument, knob, and button is used for.
Many Cessna flap switches operate differently from year to model year. Some aircraft only have brakes on one side of the cockpit. Others have only a yoke on one side. Breakers or fuses? Colored or not? Grouped or long rows of identical? Pull, push, turn? Warning lights or sound?
A cockpit layout that requires excessive head movements is not going to be safe for single pilot IFR. Older instruments have needles that give parallax reading problems. Seeing does not mean you can reach handles. I was recently asked to check a 285 # potential customer in a PA-28 by an FBO. We sat in the aircraft for nearly an hour just checking what he could see and do. He could not safely reach the fuel selector. Some switches require two-finger operation and a longer reach.
Your introduction to a cockpit is a good time to initiate a blindfold training sequence for night operations. Consider looking at how well the cockpit can be adapted to a flow pattern checklist for basic operations. The feel of a switch should go a long way toward telling you its function.
The use of checklists prevents accidents. The most likely misuse of a checklist is when an interruptions occurs in mid-use. With two people the challenge-response process is best. Professionals use checklists.
One checklist development process is devoted to the flow of the list. The list starts at the top of the panel and works down, or left to right or right to left. The flow can even be a series of S-turns. Try to make your student checklist one that will flow with later and higher-performance aircraft.
I have always emphasized anticipation over reaction in flying. Correct use of the checklist is the first step in that direction. I have always believed that developing your own checklist is to be preferred to using the inadequate POH forms or the canned versions at an FBO. You are required to use the POH items but they seldom contain anything related to communications or airport procedures that might be a part of a self constructed checklist.
The development process begins by collecting all the possible items from the POH and a tape recording of what you do and in what order. You want to have available all the operating instructions and limitations arranged for ease of use and sequence of operation. You are seeking to develop a tool that ensures that all required and supplemental items are completed and verified. You are going to divide the items into elements that flow in an orderly manner.
Finally all of the foregoing must be ordered and reordered several times by the area of flight operation. Preflight planning, systems inspections, prestart, start, taxi, runup, pre-takeoff, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, pre-landing, landing, post landing, taxi, shutdown post flight check and post flight review.
The checklist is a guide of what but not how to inspect and prepare the aircraft for flight. This is an orderly flow of items that make doing the sequence of what must be done to fly an airplane possible. The more orderly and thorough your list is the more likely it is to both functional and used. A checklist, like a chart, should be kept current for the equipment involved.
Famous Pre-takeoff Checklists
C - Control: check for proper motion of ailerons and elevator with the stick or yoke
I - Instruments: check for proper readings
G - Gasoline: do you have some?
A - Angle of flaps
R - Runup: mags and carb heat
T - Trim
I - Interior: seat belts and door latches
P - Pattern: check for other aircraft
W. I. R. E. (Before entering terminal area)
Weather, (ATIS)
Instruments, (Alt baro, DG set,)
Radios, (Approach, tower, ground, Loc, VOR),
Environment, (Traffic patter alt, DH traffic pattern, active runway.)
G. U. M. P. S.
Gas (select tank or on both)
Undercarrage, (gear down)
Manifold pressure set
Prop on High
Seat belts on
After station passage during a full instrument approach
5 - T's
Turn (to outbound heading)
Time
Twist (Adjust any Vor's)
Throttle
Talk (announce outbound if needed)
Magnetic Compass Errors/Lags:
ANDS - Accelerate North, Deaccelerate South (when heading east/west)
UNOS - Undershoot North, Overshoot South (when turning to/from North/South)
West Coast Rail Road...(Another before entering terminal area)
Weather
Compass (set the HI)
Radios (approach, tower, ground)
Review (the approach chart)
On entering runway:
H.A.L.T.T.
Heading; set to runway
Attitude; final check of attitude indicator
Lights; on as required
Transponder; on and proper code
Timer; actually two timers, one for lost comm (expect higher in x minutes), one for tanks
Aircraft VFR Day
A nti-Collision
T achometer
O il Pressure
M anifold pressure
A irspeed indicator
T emp gauge
O il temp gauge
F uel gauge
L anding gear indicator
A ltimeter
M ag compass
E LT
S afety belts
Aircraft VFR Night
F uses
L anding light
A nti-collision
P osition lights
S ource of energy
Missed approach:
C - Cram it (throttle in)
C - Climb it
C - Clean it (flaps up, gear up, etc)
C - Cool it (carb heat off, etc)
C - Call it (ATC)
I use GUMPBLES
Gas
Undercarriage
Mixture
Prop
Boost pump & Brakes
Lights (on as necessary)
Engine (check gauges)
Seatbelts & Switches
ANDS = Accelerate North/Decelerate South
NAGS/SEADS = North Lags/South Leads
COWLS Check for forced landing in a field
Communication
Obstacles
Wind
Length
Surface
HASEL Check for Stalls/Spins etc
Height
Area
Secure
Engine
Lookout
ARROWJILI - For documents on board
Airworthiness
Registration
Radio Station License (NO longer required)
Operating Handbook (POH)
Weight & Balance
Journey Log
Intercept Orders
Licenses
Insurance (No longer needed I think)
Transponder codes
seventy five, taken alive
seventy seven going to heaven
ATIS - IWARN
I - Information
W - Winds
A - Altimeter
R - Runway
N - NOTAMS
*** Runup/Ground Check ***
CIGAR
C - controls check
I - instruments set
G - gas (proper tank, pump on, etc)
A - attitude (flaps, trim, etc.)
R - runup
*** Before Takeoff ***
Lights - strobes, navs, landing
Camera - transponder (so ATC can "see" you)
Action - any other actions to be performed like boost pump on, control
checks, flaps and trim set, etc.
BLITTS
B - boost pump on
L - lights as required
I - instruments set
T - transponder on
T - takeoff time noted
S - seat, belts, doors secured
FLARE
F - flaps set
L - lights as required
A - auxiliary fuel pump on
R - radar transponder on
E - engine (lean mixture for high altitude)
*** Climb and Cruise/Before Landing ***
GUMPS
G - gas (proper tank, pump on or off, etc.)
U - undercarriage
M - mixture set
P - prop set and/or primer in/locked
S - switches (lights, pitot heat, etc.)
*Note: add C in front of GUMPS for carb heat (becomes "Charlie GUMPS")
MPG
M - mixture set
P - prop set
G - 3 green (landing gear indicator)
*** Go-Arounds ***
4 C's
C - cram it (full throttle)
C - clean it (flaps up)
C - cool it (cowl flaps)
C - call it (make radio call)
*Note: use "carb heat" instead of "cool it"
*** After Landing ***
FACTS
F - flaps up
A - auxiliary fuel pump off
C - cowl flaps
T - transponder standby
S - switches (pitot heat, lights, etc.)
FLARE
F - flaps up
L - lights as required
A - auxiliary fuel pump off
R - radar transponder standby
E - check for ELT activation after a particularly crappy landing
*** Securing the Aircraft ***
MIDGET
M - master off
I - ignition off
D - doors/windows locked
G - gust lock installed
E - ELT off
T - tiedown plane
*** Crossing a Fix/On Approach ***
6 T's
T - turn to proper heading
T - time hold or approach
T - tune/twist OBS to appropriate course
T - transition to proper configuration and airspeed (could also be "throttle")
T - talk to ATC
T - test directional compass by comparing it to magnetic compass
*** Nearing Destination Airport ***
WIRE TAP
W - Weather (AWOS, ATIS, ASOS, etc.)
I - instruments set
R - radios tuned
E - elevation (check final approach fix altitude)
T - timing to missed approach point
A - altitudes for decision height or minimum descent altitude
P - procedure for missed approach
*Note: VFR pilots can get rid of the TAP and use "elevation" to mean pattern altitude
*** Items in a Sequence ***
A PTA TEN Remark
A - aircraft identification
P - position (name of fix)
T - time crossing fix
A - altitude
T - type of flight plan
E - ETA at next reporting point
N - name of next reporting point
Remark - any other pertinent information
*** Required Items to be Reported when IFR ***
HAMSACC
H - holding (time and altitude)
A - altitude changes
M - missed approach
S - safety of flight (if anything affects it)
A - airspeed changes (of 5% or 10kts)
C - communication or navigation capability loss
C - climb rate (when unable to maintain 500fpm)
Before Takeoff – SPLIFF 4-Tango
S - seats/belts/doors secure
P - primer in and locked
L - lights as required
I - instruments checked and set
F - fuel on
F - flaps as required
T - trim set for takeoff
T - throttle up (check mags, carb heat, engine instruments, ammeter, suction)
T - transponder to altitude report
T - takeoff time - note
Climb – ATM
A - airspeed Vx, Vy, or cruise climb
T - trim (adjust)
M - mixture (lean above 3000’)
Cruise – MET LIFE
M - mixture (lean)
E - engine instruments (check)
T - throttle (set for cruise)
L - landing light off
I - instruments (check and set)
F- fuel on
E - elevator trim (adjust)
Descent – PHLEGM
P - power (adjust for descent)
H - heat (carb) on
L - landing light on
E - engine instruments (check)
G - gas (check on)
M - mixture (enrich as needed)
After Landing – FLT CMPLT
F - flaps (retract)
L - lights as required
T - transponder to standby
C - carb heat off
M - mixture (lean 1" for taxi)
P - power (adjust for taxi)
L - landing time (note)
T - trim (set for takeoff)
Instruments required for IFR flight.
G enerator
R adios (nav and com)
A ttitude indicator
B all - slip indicator
C lock (dash mounted)
A irspeed
R ate of turn indicator
D irectional gyro
(D) ME for above 24000 feet.
Paperwork needed onboard.
Airworthiness certificate
Registration
Operating limitations (placards)
Weight and balance.
This is what I use:
Tach, Oil pres, manifold pres, airspeed, temp gauge, oil temp, elt, fuel gauge, landing gear position lights, altimeter, magnetic compass, emergency equipment, safety belt/shoulder harness
vfr night - FLAPS
fuses, landing lights, anticollision lights, position lights, source of power
ifr - GRABCARD
generator/alternator, radios, attitude, ball (inclinometer), clock, altimeter, rate of turn, directional gyro
Peace Sign
Holding a Cessna throttle with an upright Peace Sign will allow you to hold on to the friction lock mount and the throttle at the same time. This will allow you a handhold to keep the seat from sliding back as it is prone to do.
Preflight Options
-- Doing all that needs doing well and efficiently means that every item is sequenced for a minimum of body, head, hand movement and time. Try to develop a flow pattern checklist for the procedures that remain constant for the aircraft. Arrange and rearrange the items into sequences and groups that flow the way you flow. Then give each item a finger in your sequence that will be used to touch each item as it is checked.
1. Arrival
Consider getting the servicing of the aircraft completed the night before or phone before leaving for the airport. Check the tires while walking to the plane. Check the wind sock and traffic pattern while driving into the airport.
2. Cockpit
Leave the baggage door unlocked since it makes an excellent emergency exit.
-- Place the keys in plane sight on the floor or hanging off the compass. Check the aircraft to Arrange and rearrange the items into sequences and groups that flow the way you flow. Then give each item a finger in your sequence that will be used to touch each item as it is checked.
3. Exterior
Check antennas for corrosion, cracks and security. Knock on spinner and propeller to confirm that sound remains the same. Changes in sound would indicate cracks.
4. Prestart
For some aircraft this would begin with (1) prime since several minutes may be required to allow fuel to spread through the intake manifold. Do not make this list a how-to-do list. (2)Seats, belts, doors , (3) Master, pump
pressure, gauges (4) Mixture, Prop, Throttle, C. H. (5) flaps (2)
5. Taxiing
Check attitude indicator, turn coordinator and heading indicator.
6. Runup
Check VOR sensitivity (10 degrees to each side of center both TO/FROM.
ADF selector switch to ADF.
Once in the aircraft we begin the pre-start tape recording. Seats, doors, window open, belts. FAR 91.107 requires the pilot to brief all passengers on how the seat belt and harness operates this may be done via an series of questions or an informational card. The passengers must be advised to buckle up before the aircraft moves and again before takeoff and landing. FAR 91.105 requires the pilot, a required crewmember, keep his belt fastened at all times. The shoulder harness need be fastened only during takeoff and landings if other duties at other times require its removal.
Two people of aggregate weight below 170 pounds may use one seat belt. Under such usage the likelihood of injury is much greater. As of 1992 child seats were approved and must be labeled as certified for use in aircraft. This is in addition to the allowing of holding, outside of the belt, children less than two. The requirement that passengers have seat belts available and used on takeoff applies to parachutists.
FAR 91.107(3) states that seat belts and shoulder harnesses are required for all occupants during takeoff, landing, and movement on the surface. The FAR is unclear in this regard since requiring the belts to be available is not the same as requiring that they be worn. The PIC is not required to make occupants wear belts. The government-gods are crazy.
I require my students to advise me of my belts. (It is surprising how often my door seems to open on takeoff when student has failed to call it from a checklist.) Key in. (Amazing how often the key is in the pocket beneath the tightened seatbelt.) Check trim, radios set, Carb heat cold, and mixture rich. Prime. In cold weather it helps to give the primer a squirt or two during the preflight.
PRE-START START Post Start TAXI
Seats/belts/doors/window "Clear" 800 rpm Brake check
Radios set/Brakes Brakes on Flaps up Heading set
C.H./Prime/Mixture/Pump Radios Off Lean 1" Wind direction
------Key/Master/ Start ATIS on Dive away
.................................................................... Oil Pressure Climb into
ATIS copy
Make several dry-run engine starts on the tape recorder to develop the checklist. Emphasize used of the left hand all the time holding the mike. The right hand remains on the throttle unless using radios. Try adding a pencil in the right hand. There is no reason holding such objects in either hand needs to interfere with the use of these hands during flight operations. Later on, this ability will become a very valuable asset.
After priming, hold the brakes, set the throttle for 1/4 inch in, yell "clear", look to both sides of the aircraft, and turn the key to start. The position of the forefinger on the throttle is used to index the power at start at 800 RPM. If the engine has not started by the time six blades have passed, stop cranking. Review your starting procedure and try again. As soon as the engine has started reach over with your right hand and close the window. Leaving the propeller blast through the open window to make a draft of cold air on the instructor's neck will not improve an already questionable personality. Avoid initial rpm higher than 800. This initial start is without oil pressure or lubrication and rpm should be kept low. Turn on the radio and listen to ATIS while confirming oil pressure, amps, and suction.
Use the Prestart, Start, and Post Start lists during each dry run. Show the student that an alternative for quick checking of a few things can be with fingers. A different finger for each item. Thumb for beacon, index for radios, middle for flaps, ring for oil pressure and little for leaning.. Show how the throttle settings can be 'indexed' by holding index finger on the friction lock of Cessna aircraft. Don't make the final start of the engine until you have practiced the radio work.
Use a run-up checklist. Always face the wind. (Engine cooling is the reason.) We are not teaching a flying career made only of C-150s. We should teach with the C-150 the procedures that will follow over to high performance aircraft. An efficient runup should take only a minute or two at most. When checking controls your thumb always points to the up aileron. Index with your finger how much throttle will give the desired RPM. Learn the sound/feel for 1700 and 800 to save time. An airplane is just a expensive to operate on the ground as in the air.
Check your controls with the 'thumbs up' technique and multiple head movements. The left thumb up always points to the up aileron and the head turn confirms both an up and down aileron. Elevators are confirmed up and down and rudder left and right.
The right hand remains on the throttle while the left locates and touches the ampere meter and suction. Touching the item on the checklist is an insurance confirmation for the observer. (examiner)) The power is indexed to 800 rpm by feel and sound. (Instructor covers tachometer.) Flight instruments and set and checked. A frequent error is in setting the heading indicator with the compass.
I teach indexes for throttle position. From idle at 800 rpm, the throttle held in the palm of the hand and the index finger moved back the length of a fingernail. Throttle is moved in until finger tip touches throttle clutch. This should give the 1700 rpm required for the magneto check. Repeat this exercise several times. Student should learn to do this by sound and feel. (I have had several instances where this kind of operational knowledge of position and sound has changed emergency into routine.) This indexing skill should be taught for both power settings and power reductions.
I present magneto checking as a smooth switching via count as 1-2, 1-2, 1,1 with the eyes focused on the tachometer to note rpm drop and difference. Some pilots tend to leave the engine operating on one magneto overly long. It only takes a moment to check. The hand moves to and pulls and pushes the carb heat while the eyes note drop when on and recovery when off. If, during runup, you should accidentally go to OFF fully retard the throttle before turning magnetos back on. This prevents after-firing that can and will damage the exhaust system. It will blow any carburetor ice out in an emergency, however.
Knowing the airport altitude is an additional aid to knowing the altimeter setting. The best altimeter setting is from an accurate copy of the ATIS information.
A good run-up should take only two or three minutes. Any longer is indicative of inefficiency or poor checklist techniques. Some pilots use a finger-count method to keep items in order. Others work systematically across the panel. Use whatever works best for you. Using 'cockpit' checklist is just about the worst thing you can do short of not using a list at all. Dry run the next radio call up procedures until they come out smoothly, accurately, and completely. Discuss the taxiing, clearing turn to be made to check for aircraft on base leg and climb out departure plan. No turn over 30 degrees should ever be made without both looking and saying "clear".
RUNUP PRETAKEOFF
Into wind Flap/(Pump)
Controls Trim for climb
Mixture/RPM Freq/vol/xpond
Mags/C.H. Time Ck
Suction/Amps Departure
RPM 1st CkPt
Instruments Course
Radios set Time
1. Gross Weight and Center of Gravity
Gross weight is the empty weight plus useful load. You must check the POH to see if empty weight includes oil but it always includes unusable fuel. Useful load includes useable fuel, (oil?), passengers, and luggage.
Gross weight directly affects stall, takeoff speed, and maneuvering speeds. An improperly loaded aircraft will have undesirable flight qualities. If you have doubts or don't know, refer to the POH. The Va, maneuvering speed decreases as aircraft weight decreases.
2. Density Altitude
Density altitude combines the effect of pressure altitude and temperature. This affects engine power, propeller thrust, and the speed/distance required to create takeoff list.
3. Wind
A headwind will reduce takeoff roll. A tailwind will increase takeoff roll. Regardless of the wind you always fly indicated POH airspeeds. A 90-degree crosswind does not affect takeoff roll distance. Liftoff during takeoffs in gusty wind conditions should be done at Vso + 5.
5. "What if... Planning
See Takeoff Emergency
Radio frequencies are changed and monitored before call up. The transponder is activated, gauges and instruments are scanned. Outside the aircraft is cleared. The EMERGENCY checklist is positioned. Practice the radio procedure for completeness, brevity, and smoothness in its entirety until it comes out in the correct order without pauses of punctuation. Then the frequency is checked and the call made.
Copy ATIS
Fuel/Mixture
Think:
Gauges/instruments
Type of entry
Altitude
Pattern altitude
Go-Around procedure
Position/traffic
Frequency
Once on the ground, Do not relax! Hold the yoke back and properly positioned for taxi. For any turns off the runway the yoke should be repositioned. The flaps should be retracted prior to any brake application. You are not clear of the runway until you cross the hold-bar. ATC will normally advise you to contact ground. During any delay you should continue to "clean up" the cockpit. This would include removing flaps, carburetor heat; turning off the strobes, unnecessary lights, transponder and leaning the mixture.
Changing Terminology
Written test is now a knowledge test.
The flight test is now the practical test
Judgment is now aeronautical decision making
Cockpit resource management (CRM) is now crew resouce management (CRM)
Biennial Flight Review now (has been) Flight Review
Uncontrolled airport now non-tower airport
Flight instruction and dual is now Flight training
Ground instruction is now ground training
Historic Terminology
Artifical horizon is now attitude indicator
Emergency Flow Checklist
A flow checklist allows you to sequence what you do according to its position in the cockpit.
A flow checklist can be extended logically
A flow checklist can do the essentials first
A flow checklist is not a 'do' list.
A flow checklist prevents omission
A flow checklist is quick to learn and quick to complete
A flow checklist must be practiced
Sample Flow List
--Best glide and site selection
--Engine restart: Fuel selector first,
--Mixture
--Throttle
--Carb heat
--Magnetos
Crash Landing
Fuel Selector
Mixture
C.H.
Mixture
Primer
Engine Fire
Secure Engine (As above)
Master Switch
Air Vents
Cabin Heat
Doors
Engine Failure
FLY airspeed
FIND airport
FIX problem
FREQUENCY 121.5
FLEE aircraft
Lost
LIMB
COMMUNICATE
CONFESS
COMPLY
Electrical
MASTER off
REDUCE load
MASTER on
CHECK\
NOT AN EMERGENCY
Radio
7600
Avoid Class B and C
Land Class-D or non-tower
Weather
Slow down
Pitot Heat
Carburetor Heat
Collision Avoidance
Move head not eyes
Night
Off center looks
Wake Avoidance
Fly upwind
Fly over
Land after
Takeoff before
The ABCDEF(G) Emergency Checklist:
A - Airspeed -- Attain best glide and trim for it.
B - Best field -- find it and aim.
C - Checklist -- (Right to left in Cessnas: Fuel, Mix, Throttle, Mags, Primer)
D - Distress -- Transponder 7700, Radios 121.5: MAYDAY!
E - Extinguish -- Fuel off, Mix full lean, Throttle idle, Mags off, Master off
F - Freedom -- Prepare to get out. Unlatch doors and protect face if possible
G - God -- [optional] Ask for some help.
Personal Minimums Checklist
Pilot: Recency of experience
Takeoffs and landings
Hours in make and model
Instrument approaches and hours
Pilot: Physical Condition
Aircraft: Fuel reserves-performance-equipment
Environment: Weather conditions
External Pressures:
Caveats on Making Checklists
I have always used a tape recorder to help my students make their first edition of a checklist.
The first edition of five or more revisions to follow. Each revision improves the writing and organization. The idea is to provide a safety tool that is both useful and used. The checklist is not a 'how to do' and procedures listing. Rather, it is a reminder list that requires touching, saying, and perhaps moving. This type of list works well in developing challenge/response lists for dual pilot coordination training. A list should be customized for the aircraft and pilot(s) to make flight operations as simple as possible. Only time-critical items or lists should be memorized.
I have found the full 8 x11 sheet inconvenient. If this is a checklist that is not used for just one aircraft I want it to be multifold to fit into my shirt pocket and small enough not to block my view of the panel when clipped to the yoke. Size changes tend to be larger at first and smaller upon revision. As size decreases lists tend to increase, as aircraft become more complex. Better to stick with the KISS principle. Keep it simple stupid.
The type format should be simple and clear with the first letter a larger font in bold for easier visual recognition. The larger first letter helps if it forms a mnemonic with the others in the topic. The items are listed for importance and flow position on the panel and grouped by major topic. The POH checklist items must be included in every checklist for technical/legal reasons. Find a way to group required items first and nice to have items into empty slots. Use actual numbers and positions as part of your wording. Keep the order of things sequential and logical.
The major topic areas consist of preflight, prestart, start, taxi, run-up, pretakeoff, takeoff post-takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, pre-landing, landing, post-landing, shutdown, post-flight, and emergency. Begin using the POH major topics and subdivide to limit the topics to sections of no more than seven items. And preferably only five. These numbers lend themselves to both topic and flow pattern organization. One additional item at the end of each list should be the completion check.
There is nothing wrong with duplication of items under following topic areas since it provides additional assurance. The flow checklist is limited due to the almost random organization of the aircraft instrument panel. Special consideration must be given to items that will not 'flow'. The more complex a checklist, the more important it is that the conditions of its use be as sterile as possible. Do not disturb the user of the checklist during his appointed rounds.
Cockpit Management
When it comes to cockpit organization it is best not to try and keep track of too much in too many places. A well designed long and narrow clipboard will serve double duty because it can be flipped over. Being narrow it does not interfere with the yoke. Clips, velcro, post-its and rubber bands keeps everything in place and flexible. A post-it pad lets you write and then put the sticker where it can be used and discarded. The narrow clipboard can be held up as needed to read items while over the top you can watch the instruments. Timing is done off the dash or yoke. Approach plates are clipped to front and back of a plastic pad that can be lifted to read from the clipboard.
Return to whittsflying Home Page
ontinued on Trim and Holding the Yoke