Taxiing Renewal; ...The Last Thing You Learn; ...Basics of Taxiing; ...Staying Lined Up; …Runway Incursions; ...Prevention of Taxiing Problems; ….Incursions; ….Getting the ATIS; …New ATIS sequence in 1999; ...Taxiing; ...More taxiing; …Brakes; …Smooth/Sharp Parking Turns; ...Ground Radio to Taxi; ...Courtesy; ...Runup;... Taxiing instruction; ...Yoke Control; ...Pre-takeoff Considerations; ...Pre-takeoff; ...Departure Radio; ...Arrival radio; ...Post-Landing; ...Parking; ...Shutdown; ...Post-flight Inspection; ...Tie Down; …Incursions; Excursions; …Low Visibility Taxiing; …
By the time we solo we should be using power and brakes with great restraint. Minimum power required to move at a good pace and smooth additions for sharp turns. Brakes only for turning and stopping. The yoke should always be hard over and all the way forward or back. No partial movements while taxiing. Practice yoke movements at all times regardless of wind so that you will respond quickly and appropriately when real wind problems exist. The control deflection of the ailerons and elevators were designed to move as far as they do more for taxiing than for flying. According to the new uniform signs of airports, airplanes must hold so that no part of the airplane passes beyond the sign or a line.
There are several different nose-wheel and braking design combinations that require slightly differing techniques. The Grumman Americans have a free castering nose-wheel and use differential braking for steering. The Piper nose-wheel is directly linked with the rudder. In the air or on the ground, when you move the rudder you move the nose-wheel. The rudder pedals have a rocking action that allows the application of both positive turn movement using direct linkage by moving the foot and differential braking by using the toe.. Don't move the rudder during preflight.
The Cessna nose-wheel and rudder are spring linked to the rudder pedals until the nose-wheel strut is fully extended. Once in the air the Cessna nosewheel hangs free and aligns itself with the relative wind. On landing there is no steering with the nose wheel until the strut is depressed. A normal turn is first initiated by fully depressing the foot. This places tension on the spring linkage and pulls the nose-wheel into the turn rather slowly. The turn radius can be made tighter by using the toe on the brakes. It is important that turns of varying radius be practiced.
If you make a good landing the yoke should be positioned for taxiing. When you turn off the runway the correct positioning of the yoke will prevent the upwind wing from lifting. The yellow lines of the taxiway is there to tell you where the middle is and gives reasonable assurance that you will not strike an obstacle as long as you are on it.
Taxiing speed and changes in this speed must be done with great anticipation. Power increases for up-hill and decreases for down-hill are selected and timed for maintaining a constant speed without the application of brakes. The use of brakes while doing anything other than turning or stopping is a sign of poor planning. Taxiing speed can only be managed by prior planning. Brains instead of brakes.
The radius of a taxiing turn is proportional to speed. Excessive speed puts unacceptable side-loads on the gear, wheels, and tires. Slow down straight ahead, then turn. Excessive speed while turning into a quartering tail wind without immediate and proper aileron deflection is a sure way to wind up hanging from your seat belt. Excess speed is the number one cause of taxiing accidents but is followed by flight control position errors. Stay on firm surfaces while taxiing. Avoid gravel. If you must start in a gravel area, clean away under the prop area. Start with absolute minimum RPM and get rolling without too much power. Keep it rolling when over gravel at minimum power. The propeller creates a vacuum that will suck up rocks and pebbles so they can be hit by the next blade coming.
Basics of Taxiing:
Planning your Taxiing:
1. Pre-taxi planning
--Planing and briefing of route
--Familiarity with airport
--Ask about recent changes
--Review NOTAMS
--Airport diagram
--Read back and check clearance
Operating Practice:
1. Monitor ATC for instruction or clearances to other aircraft.
2. Scan full length and approach corridors of runways you are about the cross.
3. Be even more cautious at night.
4. When using a runway as a taxiway, stay to one side and go a bit faster than normal.
5. Be aware if your landing turn-off intersects with another runway.
6. Maintain a sterile cockpit while taxiing.
7. Hearing what you expect to hear is a major problem.
8. Readback clearances
9. Use heading indicator to confirm taxi directions.
10. Do not exit on another runway unless cleared to do so.
Low visibility:
1. Use all lights
2. Check with ATC if in doubt.
3. Expedite all runway crossing
4. Request progressive taxi instructions
Surface Movement on Non-Towered Airports
Night Operation
---Beacon, navigation, no strobes
---All exterior lights crossing runways
---Entering departure runway all lights including strobes.
Before Taxi
---Confirm frequency, monitor
---Check full length of runway
---Review airport diagram
Taxi for Departure
---Monitor and advise as to location and intentions
---Heads up, plan taxi route based on active
---Use heading indicator to confirm taxiway
---If you become uncertain as to where you are STOP but not on a runway.
---Give full attention when crossing a runway
---Make full 360 after runup
---Announce departure/takeoff intentions
---Clear final and runway and expedite departure
Learning to taxi is one of the first operations a student is taught. Taxiing is one of the last skills a student will master. It is very difficult to give an acceptable excuse for a taxiing accident. The 1938 Pilot Training Handbook advises that no taxi speed should exceed a fast walk. Your taxi speed should never exceed one that allows an instantaneous stop. Good taxiing is a combination of speed control and directional control. Good taxiing skills require the same smoothness as flying. Good taxiing requires that you unlearn the use of the steering wheel. Taxiing requires 'kiddy car' skills.
The power required getting an aircraft rolling is greater than that required keeping it moving. Therefore, I recommend that the throttle be held in such a manner that you can rapidly and smoothly make small power adjustments. I have found that using a finger set to index the amount of throttle movement I require to be a good way to do this. I use my finger to determine how far the throttle can move. Once the aircraft is moving, reduce the power. Once rolling, you should do a brake check. No need to stop.
No need for the passengers even to know what you have done. Power adjustments must be adapted to the ground slope, wind forces, the surrounding situation and throttle linkage. Taxiing with one or more tires having low air pressure will greatly effect your taxiing. Check tire pressures during your preflight with a dial type gauge.
The factor of directional control extends beyond the turn to following the yellow lines. Side by side seating presents a parallax problem to the student. If you have any aspirations to upgrade your pilot level, taxiing on the yellow line is an imperative skill. You must concentrate on your taxiing when following a yellow line around a curve. The linkage of the rudder pedals both by movement and spring tension is such that having the rudder pedals straight does not mean that the plane goes straight. The amount of rudder depression has little relationship to how effective it is in the turn. Every aircraft taxies in a unique manner. Start out slowly and get a feel of controllability before you get moving too fast.
--Taxi slowly and cautiously
--Check your brakes before taxiing
--Keep your eyes outside the cockpit
--Your binocular depth perception ability ends around 20 feet.
--If your clearance looks too narrow, it probably is.
--Beware of large aircraft and helicopters
--Keep power and braking at minimum.
--Don't taxi any faster than the instructor will run.
--Controls to dive away and climb in the wind.
--Plan ahead for slope and surface conditions.
--FAR 91.113 indicates that you should never enter a runway without making sure the approach and bases are clear.
--Every holding instruction while taxiing must be acknowledged and read back.
Staying Lined Up
Professionals stay on the line. Students have trouble getting on the line and following the line. Students tend to taxi with too
much power and use braking instead of pedal pressure to guide the plane. There is a parallax problem related to the nose
wheel position offset from the seat. The aircraft that is on the line is somewhat assured obstacle clearance. No guarantee...
just assurance.
The pilot on final approach has a third dimension to deal with in attaining centerline alignment. A useful practice exercise to improve your skills in this matter is to set up a long final of several miles. Then get to approach speed and hands-off the yoke. With a very light yoke touch, while holding the nose aligned parallel to the runway with the rudder, slide the aircraft slowly left and right to each side of the runway. Do this side to side until you feel satisfied that you can slide and stop to either side at will.
Runway Incursions
An incursion is when anything on the ground creates a collision hazard with an active runway area. Human error is the primary cause. These are errors by pilots, airport personnel, ATC, animals, and pedestrians. Part of the cause is inherent in airport design and may be local or airport-specific. Some problem areas are not visible to ATC.
Runway incursions are accidents waiting to happen. Safe operation on an airports is a challenge especially to the unfamiliar pilot. Safety depends on planning, coordination and communication. At unfamiliar larger airports you must maintain situational awareness, have an airport diagram with written instructions. Copy your taxi clearance. Track it on the chart and then give a read-back for confirmation. You must know your starting position and mentally project yourself along the taxi route assigned. It helps to say aloud where you are and where you are going as you go.
Instruction should include the importance of clearing prior to taking any runway. 360s at uncontrolled airports are preferred. Students should be familiar with airport markings as presented in the AIM. A student should never take a 'cleared for immediate' ATC offer nor do I believe ATC should make such an offer to a student pilot. Poor visibility greatly increases the likelihood of a runway incursion.
19% increase in 1996 records.
71% by GA pilots.
Runway incursions have risen 50% since 1991.
Incursions are most likely to occur at night and in low visibility.
Misunderstanding, situational awareness and marginal airport markings are proximate causes.
A skeptical pilot who clears a runway before entrance is separating a memorable event from one that portends tragedy. Preventative measures are common sense and apply to all airports and all runways. Failure of a pilot to clear a runway without an adequate scan of the approach flight path to both sides of the airport is a form of Russian roulette. Impatience or stress is usually the driving force behind a runway incursion. Ignorance runs second. No part of an aircraft should intrude on the wrong side of the hold bars. Hold bars are made up of four yellow lines two dashed - - - - lines and two _____solid lines. You hold when the solid lines are on your side, you cross when the dashed lines are on your side.
1. Check NOTAMs and airport diagrams.
2. Proper phraseology
3. Check and monitor radios
4. Use lights
5. Get ATIS/AWOS and monitor CTAF
6. Avoid using land and hold short clearances.
7. Clear and report clear of runway when across the hold bars.
8. If at all uncertain of location or taxi route, get help.
Runway incursions are a real problem often made worse by poor visibility and confused pilots. IFR departures from uncontrolled airports may not be monitoring the CTAF. Incursions seem to be related to being on the wrong runway, using another aircraft's clearance, misinterpretation of airport signs or lines, and communication failures.
Prevention of taxiing problems:
--Communicate
--Use airport diagram
--Get ATC help early
--When in doubt, verify
Incursions
The pilot is likely to be guilty of an incursion by not holding short or of entering a runway without a clearance. Wisest to ask ATC if you have any taxiing doubts. The causes of incursions are likely to be lack of familiarity with the airport and ATC procedures. The FAA only counts incursions that occur at controlled airports.
Out of 5000 total airports only 467 have towers. Only 16 of these 467 airports have 1/4 of all runway incursions. 41 of them have 50% of the incursions. 40% of all incursions are ATC initiated. A runway transgression is an incursion that causes a traffic conflict. This usually involves crossing a holding line without clearance or using a runway without a clearance. A transgression can occur on a taxiway. Incursions alone without the transgression usually result in a go-around or an aborted takeoff. Ground vehicle operations account for 21% of incursions.
Aircraft at controlled airports have transgressions derived from five general causes.
--Expectation bias; (Causes 1/4 of problems)
--A Positional awareness problem; (Being unfamiliar with airport)
--Distraction;
--ATC/pilot communications problem; (Call-sign confusion is a mistake multiplier)Directional sign confusion (See latest AIM)
Uncontrolled airports cannot have transgressions. Incursions at uncontrolled airports are caused by poor clearing practices, inadequate use of CTAF, or the 'expected behavior bias' problem. Expectation bias means that one or the other pilots expect the other to behave in a particular way in a given circumstance. If, for some reason or other, the pilot does not perform as expected then the pilot holding the bias is set up for an incursion of one form or another. The
three major factors can singularly or in combination made an accident chain leading to an accident. An unfamiliar airport's ground operations can be the most demanding and complex phase of flying.
Factors:
--Communications
--Airport knowledge
--Procedures and orientation
--Visibility
Prevention
1. Never assume or it will make an ass out of u and me.
2. Readback all ground instructions verbatim.
3. Stick to business until shutdown.
4. Scan outside the cockpit
5. Ask for help sooner than later.
6. Use your lights
7. Use and listen to the radio.
8. Use standard procedures.
One of my readers asked that I expand of the following statement: "The student will benefit from getting the ATIS with the engine running at all times."
As a teacher I used several techniques that I found successful in the teaching of children. I found that hungry kids learn faster and better. After the lunch bell I would line the kids by the door. I would start a tape with math such as a mixture of multiplication and division tables. The tape would say the problem and after a pause of a second would give the answer. If the kid beat the tape to the answer, he got to go to lunch. Otherwise, he went to the end of the line. Worked with rote things such as states and capitols etc.
I have found that it is a tremendous advantage to be able to get the ATIS the first time every time. I have also found, that the expense of having the engine running is a prime motivation to listen and get the ATIS quickly and efficiently. I have had many pilots come to me who, even with the engine off, as you do will listen to the ATIS several times. In a 150 mph aircraft it becomes very inefficient for the pilot to slow down to C-150 speed just to get the ATIS.
My intent in getting the ATIS, as well as all of my primary instruction, is to prepare students for life after the C-150. I have received many belated compliments for using this ATIS method from students who have gone on to IFR copying of the ATIS and clearances.
I suggest writing the ATIS on the hand. I use a + format and let the vertical line represent the runway. In the top left quadrant I put the "name" of the ATIS. At the top of the + I put the runway used for takeoff and landing. In the top right quadrant I put the wind direction and in the bottom left quadrant I put the wind velocity. The lower right quadrant gets at least the last two digits of the altimeter setting. These are the essentials. I may make the vertical part of the + into a runway and draw an vector arrow to show the crosswind direction and velocity. I don't bother getting the visibility and weather. I already know the conditions or I wouldn't be sitting in the plane getting the ATIS.
The other ATIS information can be observed or noted without writing. Where an instrument runway number is always on the ATIS, ignore it when it is not the "landing" runway. Where the departure runway is into an instrument procedure route you will, be given a place to 'breakoff' your approach or where to expect instrument arrivals to 'breakoff'. Look out, some don't. It is best to keep your head up in the cockpit.
Pilots with their heads down have rolled, unknowingly, into other aircraft while copying the ATIS. You do not need to look down at a lap-board as you write the ATIS. It is best to keep your head up and an eye outside the cockpit. Never, never rely on a parking brake. Don't look down to your lap while writing the ATIS or other information. Find a way to do your writing 'heads up'.
The student will benefit from getting the ATIS with the engine running at all times. The cost for time on the ground will be recovered many times over in the air. This puts economic, as well as mental pressure, on his ability to WRITE the ATIS first time it is broadcast. This is a skill that can be learned and acquired. The dividend is a flying career time/cost saver. You can practice at home on the phone by calling the ATIS number at your nearest airport. (See phone numbers)
New ATIS sequence 1999
Airport name
Letter identifier
Zulu time
Wind direction and velocity
Visibility
Sky condition
Temperature and dew point
Altimeter setting
Active runway and Approach in use
Remarks
Because of side by side seating the student pilot must be helped to find where to look for putting the nose wheel on the taxiway center line. Move the plane so as to be centered on a line. Have the student seated as usual and from a distance of thirty feet, slowly move in stages toward the aircraft nose. To the student you will be aligned with the center of students yoke. The center line due to parallax goes between the student's legs though some use the inside leg for aiming.. A post solo student might be helped by an instructor some distance ahead and facing the taxiing aircraft giving arm signals. See the AIM for taxiing signals.
The most likely aircraft accident occurs while taxiing. Casual taxiing and parking attitudes are preludes to accidents. Taxi scared. It is not possible to taxi too slowly but some compromise with the practical requires a speed equivalent fast walk. Always taxi as though the wind were at thirty knots to acquire expertise in the correct yoke movement. In real windy conditions you will have less than ten seconds to correctly position the controls.
Arrive at the run up area so as to allow the engine to face the wind for additional cooling and to allow maximum room for other aircraft. Circumstances such as blowing dust or noise may require that aircraft be facing a specific direction while in the runup area. Remain as far back from the taxiway as possible to allow safe passage of long winged aircraft.
Taxiing is flying with the wheels on the ground. There are only two dimensions and you must control direction and speed. You can control the speed with the throttle and the direction with the combination of rudder and brake. Reduce power once you start rolling. The wind effecting the wing and rudder are the imponderables that require anti-instinctive control movements of the yoke. Staying on the yellow lines should give obstacle clearance but watch out anyway. The exception to this is when there is snow/ice on existing tire tracks. Be original, make your own tracks.
Taxiing starts once you leave the parking spot after doing the brake check. Taxiing also begins when you cross the hold bar lines on clearing the runway and completing the post-landing checklist. Difficulty controlling taxi direction is indicative of a brake or wind problem. If you are having taxiing difficulty, slow down. Make sharp turns with careful use of a brake-power combination. Do all taxiing that does not involve sharp turns by use of the rudder pedals and not the brakes. Do not ride the brakes. At the first opportunity get a look at their size and you will see why. Hot brakes lose their ability to stop the plane.
Clearing the final and BASE should be a part of every takeoff. Monitoring the radio, alone, is not sufficient insurance to be sure that another aircraft will not make your takeoff more thrilling than usual.
The POH usually indicates a neutral for head and tail winds and all . For all other winds dive away from quartering winds behind you and climb into any quartering headwinds. In winds less than 20 knots I believe that you are just as well off diving away from any wind behind you and climbing into any kind of head wind.
Taxiing hand signals are self evident. When you turn off the magnetos it is a courtesy to show the keys to the line boy in front of the airplane.
Brakes
The conversion of kinetic into heat energy is what slows an airplane. The size and material of the brake determines its effectiveness in making this conversion and its effectiveness in slowing and stopping a vehicle or airplane.
Every brake has a point at which it will lose effectiveness. Heat will at some point cause braking to fade. Rust is another factor in aircraft brakes. Rust particles become embedded in the fiber disk and wears away on the disk
Smooth/Sharp Parking Turns
Most aircraft are parked in rows that require them to be pushed back into their allotted space. At my home field the aircraft are parked in rows. The incompetent pilot swerves far too close to one side of the land and then makes a sweeping turn to face away from his tie-down. Over the year more of our club planes have been damaged by such a procedure than by any other cause. A skilled pilot can make the turn very smoothly with brake and power while keeping the cockpit over the taxi center line. One of the last things a student learns to do well is taxi. 46% of all aircraft damaged results from taxiing impact.
I am of a nature to believe that everything worthwhile has been invented by a lazy man. This even applies to pre-historic times as well as present day. Why is a computer better than a typewriter? Being able to align an aircraft cleanly into position so that it can be pushed back into its space without a towbar is a skill that pays off during the first rain. At some point in a pilot's flying career he is going to need this skill big time. Better to get the basics early.
Ground Radio to Taxi
Never transmit on the radio without practicing what to say while holding the microphone to your lips. It does no good to practice without the microphone. Take a deep breath and get all the words out smoothly without pause or punctuation. Don't broadcast until you have mastered what and how to say everything. The order of words is often as important as the words themselves. For our convenience all practice will use the ATIS as "Alpha".
Concord Ground Who you are talking to...
Cessna 6185 Kilo Who you are...
East ramp taxi with Alpha Where you are...
request three two right What you want...
This should come out an a smooth series of words without punctuation or pauses, as....
Concord Ground Cessna 6185 Kilo East ramp with Alpha request three-two right (32R is the runway, Alpha is the ATIS)
Practice, with the unkeyed microphone, until you get it right. Then say it with the keyed mike. We usually ask for the closest runway that wind conditions make usable. If ATC is unable or unwilling they will make a runway assignment. You will find the radio much easier to understand if you know what to expect ATC (Air Traffic Control) to say. The usual ATC response will be...
85 Kilo taxi to 32R
Almost every ATC communication needs to be acknowledged and sometimes repeated back for verification. Your response would be...
"85 Kilo to 32R
All runway assignments are to be readback whether on the ground or in the air. A clearance to taxi lets you taxi anywhere on the airport as long as you do not intrude on the runways in use. The usual expectation is that you will proceed be the shortest route but it is not required. Let ATC know if you plan to wander.
Have clearly in mind where you are, where you are going, and the route to get you there. If ever in a situation where you are unfamiliar as to where you are or how to get where you are going on the ground advise the controller. If ever in doubt, ask for help. Just say,
85k is unfamiliar request progressive taxi assistance
This tells the controller that you expect him to advise you where to go and turn as you proceed. It is a sign of professional competence to admit when you require help. It is just as important to know how to get help as it is to know the way. You are going to be landing at many strange airports where the ability to get timely assistance is important.
Courtesy
Airport courtesy extends beyond the rules of right of way. Don't use strobe lights on the ground. Give preference to aircraft which operate on time schedules or are large users of fuel. (Fire suppression aircraft always deserve right of way.) In the run up area use the wheel instead of the wingtip as your guide to the edge. Give the taxiway as much clearance as possible to allow passage of long winged aircraft. Practice using as little of the run up area as you can safely so that you will develop the skills needed when little space is available. Though not required, General Aviation planes can develop good feelings toward their activities by giving way to commercial operations where practical.
A pilot should enter a run up area and park in such a way as to minimize the space occupied as a courtesy to other aircraft. The position, ideally, should not intrude on the ability of other aircraft to run up, use a taxiway or have runway access. The fighter wingman position seems to be the best option when arriving after other aircraft. All too often do we see three planes occupying space meant for five or more. Arrive at the run up area so as to allow the engine to face the wind for additional cooling and to allow maximum room for other aircraft.
Arrive at the run up area so as to allow the engine to face the wind for additional cooling and to allow maximum room for
other aircraft. Do not let yourself be hurried into a takeoff by ATC or otherwise. A hurried departure may not allow you
to properly clear the runway approaches. Plan your turn to clear the runway so as to give a large turning arc for smooth
alignment and acceleration. Remember, ATC only gives clearances. The safety of any action resides with the pilot. Practice for the departure communication with the tower to include "on course to destination)" and a request for a time check. This serves as a mini-flight plan which is recorded as well an experience in noting Zulu time.
Recently I was exposed to an FBO instructional program where the chief pilot suggested that I perform in some situations
contrary to what I felt to be within the bounds of flying etiquette. I was told not to avoid a particular flight path when I knew I was being followed by a much faster aircraft. I was told to ignore the suggested altitude over a Federal Game Refuge because the altitude 'suggested' was not in the FARs. Finally, when I suggested that slow flight in the pattern as a full-time procedure was inconsiderate for other aircraft, I was told that avoidance was 'their' problem.
Ramp etiquette requires the calling of "clear" and acknowledgement of those in the area. A pilot is also responsible for
the consequences of prop blast and usage of runup space. Room for four aircraft can be limited to one aircraft that is inconsiderate.On the ground etiquette practices is likely to be practiced in the air. Midair collisions are most likely to
occur in the immediate vicinity of airports and more so at uncontrolled airports. Uncontrolled airport procedures have recommended practices as to pattern and radio procedures. Those who fail to follow recommended practices are exposing themselves and others to unnecessary risks.
Runup
Use a run-up checklist. Always face the wind. (Engine cooling is the reason.) We are not teaching a flying career made only of C-150s. We should teach with the C-150 the procedures that will follow over to high performance aircraft. An efficient runup should take only a minute or two at most. When checking controls your thumb always points to the up aileron. Index with your finger how much throttle will give the desired RPM. Learn the sound/feel for 1700 and 800 to save time. An airplane is just a expensive to operate on the ground as in the air.
Check your controls with the 'thumbs up' technique using the left hand and multiple head movements. The left thumb up always points to the up aileron and the head turn confirms both an up and down aileron. Elevators are confirmed up and down and rudder left and right. The right hand remains on the throttle while the left locates and touches the ampere meter and suction. Touching the item on the checklist is an insurance confirmation for the observer. (examiner)) The power is indexed to 800 rpm by feel and sound. (Instructor covers tachometer.) Flight instruments and set and checked. A frequent error is in setting the heading indicator with the compass.
I teach indexes for throttle position. From idle at 800 rpm, the throttle held in the palm of the hand and the index finger moved back the length of a fingernail. Throttle is moved in until finger tip touches throttle clutch. This should give the 1700 rpm required for the magneto check. Repeat this exercise several times. Student should learn to do this by sound and feel. (I have had several instances where this kind of operational knowledge of position and sound has changed emergency into routine.) This indexing skill should be taught for both power settings and power reductions.
I present magneto checking as a smooth switching via count as 1-2, 1-2, 1,1 with the eyes focused on the tachometer to note rpm drop and difference. Some pilots tend to leave the engine operating on one magneto overly long. It only takes a moment to check. The hand moves to and pulls and pushes the carb heat while the eyes note drop when on and recovery when off. If, during runup, you should accidentally go to OFF fully retard the throttle before turning magnetos back on. This prevents after-firing that can and will damage the exhaust system.
Knowing the airport altitude is an additional aid to knowing the altimeter setting. The best altimeter setting is from an accurate copy of the ATIS information.
A good run-up should take only two or three minutes. Any longer is indicative of inefficiency or poor checklist techniques. Some pilots use a finger-count method to keep items in order. Others work systematically across the panel. Use whatever works best for you. Using 'cockpit' checklist is just about the worst thing you can do short of not using a list at all. Dry run the next radio call up procedures until they come out smoothly, accurately, and completely. Discuss the taxiing, clearing turn to be made to check for aircraft on base leg and climb out departure plan. No turn over 30 degrees should ever be made without both looking and saying "clear".
RUNUP PRETAKEOFF
Into wind Flap/(Pump)
Controls Trim for climb
Mixture/RPM Freq/vol/xpond
Mags/C.H. Time Ck
Suction/Amps Departure
RPM 1st CkPt
Instruments Course
Radios set Time
Taxiing instruction(Instructor)
The nose wheel linkage, tire pressure, spring tension, and seat position affect taxiing and often cause turns in one direction to be easier than in the other. Winds over 12 kts can cause the aircraft to weather vane. Learn to compensate for both aircraft linkage and the wind. The competent pilot stays on the yellow line. Since the steering of the Cessna uses two springs in which one spring usually has a different tension, a different degree of anticipation is required to make turns. Learn to taxi with a minimum of braking because the brake pads are not much larger than a silver dollar. Braking is used only for making sharp turns and stopping. Take the student through several left and right turns by applying brake pressure.
The first skill element of taxiing is developing a smooth movement of the throttle control. This skill may be taught by holding the Cessna throttle knob in the palm of the hand and using the index finger as a lock and guide. I recommend holding Piper quadrant throttles with the thumb up and palm forward. Taxi instruction begins by practicing smooth throttle movement from 800 RPM up to 1200 RPM and back again. The aircraft idles at 800 but the brakes must be held on. It takes 1200 RPM to get the aircraft moving for taxiing, but once moving 800 will maintain the fast walk speed desired. While circumstances may vary, the "fast walk" speed seems most desirable. If brakes are applied during this slow taxi for turning or otherwise then power must be smoothly re-applied and then reduced once desired speed is acquired. Power is also needed if a small grade must be climbed. Each phase of flight deserves an equal level of attention. A poor control decision while taxiing can be just as dangerous as one made in flight.
The first taxiing lesson should be done with feet alone and hands off the yoke. Using a straight taxi area clear of obstructions have the student practice a controlled weave of the plane in S-turns from one side of the taxiway to the other using just rudder pressure and no brakes. After the feel of the bungee springs seems to be acquired, have the student attempt to follow the center line of the taxiway with only the use of rudder pressures.
The second skill of taxiing is the use of rudder in combination with the brakes. The student must be shown that the position and pressures of the feet and toes determines the amount of turning effect from the bungee springs and brake. Every effort should be made to effect turning without the use of brakes. Brake applications should be the minimum needed either to turn or stop. Some aircraft brake pads are not much larger than a silver dollar. Tighter turns requiring a light application of brakes should be introduced during the next lesson. Some of the turns should include coming to a smooth stop while straightening the nose wheel. Finally several 360 degree continuous turns should be performed both left and right with decreasing radii.
You seldom hear of taxiing practice. Taxiing may not be flying but it deserves the same care, planning and awareness as any other flight operation. Before beginning to taxi, determine the wind direction and set the yoke. Check brakes at first roll. Another brake check might be made (lightly) on touchdown. Under certain conditions an off center taxi or landing may be appropriate on slick surfaces.
Get student to taxi using rudder pedals only. No yoke (yet) or brakes. This will teach anticipation and a sense of how much spring pressure is available to turn in either direction. some adjustment of seat may be required to prevent use of brakes. Have student weave to each side of centerline, anticipate turns with full rudder pressure, and use brakes only when absolutely necessary.
Next taxi exercise will be to use combination of smooth brake pressure. and power to make several left and right turns of 360, 270, and 180-degrees. The turns should be made with minimum brake and power and nose wheel should be straight on completion of turn. Later turn should be varied as to brake and power to increase sharpness of turn. As part of the exercise you should practice coming out of the turns on lines with the nosewheel straight, much as you would for entering alignment to a parking space. It will take some practice.
Next taxi exercise will be to simulate winds or use actual winds for all taxiing. It is essential that the student master the basics of taxiing prior to solo. It is a matter of safety.
Emphasize that yoke position will be taught during subsequent lessons. Taxiing is the last skill mastered by pilots. The difficulty arises from a conflict with past driving practice. The turn with the feet may be to the right while the turn of the yoke with the hand may be to the left. This is a difficult unlearning exercise for most of us. Taxiing is one of the last operational skills mastered and the one that is the first indicator of a pilot's competence. Taxi at a speed appropriate to your skill, the aircraft, and conditions.
In aircraft you cannot turn unless you are moving. Any turning while moving too fast can seriously damage the aircraft by putting excessive sideloads of the landing gear. It is best that all heavy braking be done straight ahead so that less braking will be required while turning. This is especially true when exiting a runway. Taxi instruction should include a series of turns that involve increasingly tight turns combined with stopping the turn with the nose wheel straight in a selected direction. This skill is similar to that required in parking a car.
I have several taxi specific lessons that I incorporate into my flight instruction. The first is weaving side to side on the longest available taxiway. I want the student to realize the differences between the wingtip and the wheel location. I want the taxiing to be done in anticipation for the inherent differences in pedal application, brake pressures and wind effect. All elevator/aileron inputs are made with full deflection.
The student needs to understand the braking system as it functions in conjunction with the rudder pedals. Different manufacturers, because of patents have devised different systems. Cessna has a spring linkage to the nose-wheel that is pulled (more or less--sometimes it pulls more other times less) in both directions just by pushing in on the rudder. Once the pedal is fully depressed the pilot the pilot can increase the rate of turn by depressing the top of the pedal for differential braking. The linkage of the pedal to the nose wheel is removed once airborne so that the wheel does not turn in the air. This makes crosswind landings easier since the wheel is aligned with the relative wind on landing.
On the other hand, Piper has its rudder and nose-wheel working in concert all the time. On the ground or in the air you get left rudder movement and a left turned nose wheel when applying left rudder with your foot. Because of this direct linkage the rudder should be placarded against the use of any hand movement while on the ground. Additionally this linkage means that crosswind landings require that the nose wheel be held clear of the runway until the rudder has been aligned with the relative wind. The more positive feel of the Piper seems to make taxiing easier. American Yankee types all use differential braking. This means that all turns require more or less braking to affect the free castoring nose wheel.
Yoke Control (Instructor)
My next lesson is teaching yoke position based upon wind direction. This is a counter-intuitive situation where the direction you move the yoke may have no relationship to the direction to intend to turn or are turning. For the first three or four full circles I do the taxiing while making stops every 90 degrees.
I start with a quartering head wind so that each quadrant I stop at will have full control deflection. I will make a full 360 to the left followed by a full 360 to the right. Once I feel the student has the idea I will make a very slow 360 in each direction while the student thinks through the yoke movements required. This is not easy for the student. The full deflection change may be required by only the aileron or by both the aileron and elevator. On the follow-up lesson I will require the student to do both the taxiing and the yoke movements. Periodic reviews are worthwhile if the student lapses into careless or improper yoke positions during normal taxiing.
The advanced skill of taxiing is the use of the yoke which needs to be positioned so that a wind gust will not flip the airplane over. A formula that applies primarily to tail draggers but works just as well for tricycle is, Dive away from the wind behind and climb into the wind ahead. Introduce this to the student when stopped. Show how the wind direction dictates the yoke position. The most likely aircraft accident occurs while taxiing. It is not possible to taxi too slow but some compromise with the practical requires a speed equivalent to a fast walk. Always taxi as though the wind were at thirty knots to acquire expertise in the correct yoke movement.
Yoke full left Yoke full right
full back full forward
Wind direction
Yoke level Yoke level
full back full forward
Yoke full right Yoke full left
full back full forward
I have found that before starting the engine some practice in yoke control can be given by turning the heading indicator with a pre-selected wind direction to various positions and having the student position the yoke. This can be followed by having the student close his eyes and position the yoke according to where the instructor has set the 'wind direction' on opening his eyes. The most advanced stage of this process would be by having the instructor call out differing wind directions in rather quick succession while the student tries to keep the yoke properly positioned.
Early on, find a large open ramp for taxi practice. So advise Ground Control. Initially geographic points may be used as indicators but the heading indicator should take precedence as an indicator and reference. The student should keep in mind the heading indicator number than shows the wind. Face the aircraft at an 45 degree angle from the wind. Help the student position the controls so that the wind passing over the ailerons will hold the wing down. Discuss how the movement of the wind in this particular direction helps hold the wing down as it moves over the aileron. Make successive 90 degree turns and stop. Position the yoke at each stop. Discuss the wind effect at each stop.
Next position the aircraft as before and make a slow 360 to the right while the student moves the yoke. Use the heading indicator to set a wind direction. Don't expect miracles from the student. Stop in the original position and make a slow 360 to the left.
Beginning at a 45-degree angle to the wind, real or selected. Make successive 90-degree continuous turns through 360-degrees both left and right. During each turn the yoke will be positioned according to 'wind'. The next left-right turns can be slow, stopping only if the yoke is not correctly positioned.
This is another good time to show that the "sum of the digits" on the heading indicator remains the same for each 90 degrees. 030=3; 120=3; 210=3 and 300=3 for example. The final check is to execute a continuous 360 while the student positions the yoke throughout. Again do both left and right turns. Finally, have the student execute a series of 90 degree turns either stopping or continuous as his skills require. Depending on wind direction and the direction of the turn, a right movement of the yoke may be required during a left turn or a left movement of the yoke may be appropriate for a right turn. Use the wind sock or ATIS wind direction and select a corresponding number on the heading indicator to serve as a guide for determining yoke position.
It is important to note that the yoke position required for crosswind landing roll out is exactly the yoke position required for taxiing. Full yoke movement is used while taxiing in full forward or back as well as left or right. Failure to have the yoke in the proper position at any time either in high winds or when taxiing behind a jet could result in a ground level roll over. Once the wind gets under the wing it is too late.
Once the basic yoke movements while taxiing have been acquired, all subsequent ground movements should be made as though the wind velocities were sufficient to flip the plane. A great deal of practice is required to overcome the habits acquired by driving a car. These yoke positions should be practiced until they are automatic. It only takes a few seconds for a wind gust to flip an airplane. You can't always plan the wind velocity at a destination. Taxi as though winds were always at 30 knots and let the student know how many times he has been turned over by these hypothetical winds on the way to the run up area. If your situation allows, try to expose the student to a variety of routes and runways about the airport. Calm or light wind conditions which are more common than high winds cause complacency and lack of practice. Taxi scared and prepared.
1. Gross Weight and Center of Gravity
Gross weight is the empty weight plus useful load. You must check the POH to see if empty weight includes oil but it always includes unusable fuel. Useful load includes useable fuel, (oil?), passengers, and luggage.
Gross weight directly affects stall, takeoff speed, and maneuvering speeds. An improperly loaded aircraft will have undesirable flight qualities. If you have doubts or don't know, refer to the POH. The Va, maneuvering speed decreases as aircraft weight decreases.
2. Density Altitude
Density altitude combines the effect of pressure altitude and temperature. This affects engine power, propeller thrust, and the speed/distance required to create takeoff list.
3. Wind
A headwind will reduce takeoff roll. A tailwind will increase takeoff roll. Regardless of the wind you always fly indicated POH airspeeds. A 90-degree crosswind does not affect takeoff roll distance. Liftoff during takeoffs in gusty wind conditions should be done at Vso + 5.
4. "What if... Planning
See Takeoff Emergency
Radio frequencies are changed and monitored before call up. Transponder is activated, gauges and instruments are scanned and mixture to rich. Outside the aircraft is cleared. The EMERGENCY checklist is positioned. Practice the radio procedure for completeness, brevity, and smoothness in entirety until it comes out in the correct order without pauses of punctuation. Then the frequency is checked and the call made.
After arrival at the runway, a direction of departure must be determined. It is a good practice for the departure communication with the tower to include "on course to (place)" and a request for a time check. This serves as a mini-flight plan which is recorded as well an experience in noting time. It is more specific as to direction with regard to traffic advisories. This departure allows us a direct route if approved by ATC. We don't have to go there, just head in that direction. Sometimes a runway will have special restrictions. 32L has a requirement that you pass the railroad tracks before making the left crosswind. Read the advisory signs at all airports.
Departing on a given runway has several options. The standard departure is a 45 degree turn after reaching 600'. To the right on a right runway; to the left on a left runway. All other departures must be requested.
You may request:
"on course...(PREFERRED)
"R/L crosswind...
"R/L downwind...
"Straight out...
"R/L 270 overhead...
"... departure
Practice until your call-up comes out smoothly as...
Call-up
Concord Tower Cessna 6185K ready 32R on course...(to)
Clearance
85K cleared for takeoff on course (place) approved.
Another clearance may be...
ATC:"85K taxi into position and hold"
This clearance MUST be acknowledged since it confirms our understanding and intention to stop in position.
We say..."85K position and hold"
ATC has a traffic situation on the runway or about to occur that, while allowing us on to the runway will not allow us to takeoff. This means we may taxi so as to clear the approach to the runway, taxi on to the runway but NOT takeoff.
We must hold until we hear...
ATC:"85K cleared for takeoff on course (place) approved"
We may takeoff and proceed on course without acknowledgment. The last possibility to be likely is ...
ATC:"85K hold short landing traffic"
You say...
"85K holding short"
Any clearance using the word "hold" must be acknowledged. (I have taught this procedure for years, it became an FAR in 1992). This means that we may taxi so as to clear the approach area but we may NOT cross the hold bars to the runway. The hold bars consist of four yellow/orange stripes. Two are solid and two are dashed. You must wait behind the hold bars until given an additional clearance.
BEGIN**********************************************************************
When writing aircraft communications do not punctuate.
Departure and arrival using 32R
Concord ground Cessna six one eight five kilo east ramp taxi with _____
85K taxi to 32 right
85 Kilo understand 32R
85K request taxi closer to hold bars prior to contacting tower
Concord tower Cessna 6185 Kilo ready three-two right right turn on course Livermore
85K right turn approved clear for takeoff
(no response necessary)
or....
85K taxi into position and hold
85K understand position and hold
85K cleared for takeoff right turn approved
(no response necessary
Concord tower Cessna 6185K Blackhawk at two-thousand eight-hundred with _____ request straight in three-two right will report two-mile final
85K approved as requested (you win the brass ring)
85K two mile final
85K number two after Archer short final cleared to land 32R
85K cleared for 32R have traffic
(after landing)
85K contact ground point niner when clear
85K going to point niner when clear
*********************************************************
Concord ground Cessna 6185 Kilo clear of the right taxi east ramp via bravo
85K taxi as requested
85 K
**********************************************************************END
While easy to accomplish, the takeoff is a relatively high risk flight operation because of the few options if things go wrong. The best option available for takeoff is "not to". Risk management gives you the option of not to or to delay the takeoff. Don't let yourself be hurried by ATC or other factors (cost) if a delay or cancellation will reduce your risk.
During your preflight you have determined that the aircraft is safe to takeoff. During the pre-takeoff you have reconfirmed this safety by again checking doors etc. Once you have applied power and begun accelerating you are again limiting your options. Pilot actions taken before takeoff prevent most takeoff accidents.
Don't go until you are ready. Use your pretakeoff checklist. Trim set should be part of the pre-takeoff checklist. If and when something goes wrong on takeoff don't do it to yourself. Plan for the aircraft control operation required by the existing wind, density altitude, runway conditions and the unexpected. What if your door suddenly opens? What is your aborted takeoff distance? What is your minimum altitude before you attempt a 240-degree return to the runway? Have things ready, know your options, clear the close-in-base and final approaches. You cannot rely on the controller's 'clearance' since every aircraft operation is your responsibility. When you have done all of the above, GO.
Don't let a controller or other plane hurry you into a takeoff. A hurried departure may not allow you to properly clear the runway approaches. Remember ATC only gives clearances. When cleared for takeoff the student is required to taxi and turn toward the final runway approach course and base leg before entering the runway. A clearance for takeoff does not relieve the pilot of responsibility for his own safety. This is the only clearance that through common practice does not need the "85K" acknowledgment. However, it is not wrong to do so. Plan your clearing turn to clear the runway so as to give a large turning arc for smooth alignment and acceleration.
Don't waste runway by too slow application of power. The safest takeoff requires that maximum use of the runway be made. Anything other than a smooth rapid application of throttle is relatively unsafe. Rotation and liftoff should occur at minimum safe operating speed (bottom of the green arc) and climb trimmed for best rate.
Once on the ground, Do not relax! Hold the yoke back and properly positioned for taxi. For any turns off the runway the yoke should be repositioned. The flaps should be retracted prior to any brake application. You are not clear of the runway until you cross the hold-bar. ATC will normally advise you to contact ground. During any delay you should continue to "clean up" the cockpit. This would include removing flaps, carburetor heat; turning off the strobes, unnecessary lights, transponder and leaning the mixture.
Post-landing
Flaps
C.H.
Lights
Mixture lean
Clear runway
Radio
The number one region of aircraft accidents is getting into a parking space. Some pilots seem to think it necessary to make a little jog toward the parking space prior to turning. This could save a couple of feet of push back at best but all too often results in contact with a neighboring aircraft. Better to pick a point in the parking area where the nose is to go and plan your turn from the middle of the taxiway to that point. The nose wheel should be straightened while the plane is completing the turn.
One of the most common errors of aircraft handling occurs when positioning the plane at the tie- down. Draw an imaginary line from the tie-down to where you want the nose to be on stopping. DON'T weave toward the tie-down. This is the cause of numerous accidents. Once you have your imaginary line or a point, make a smooth/sharp turn and straighten the nose wheel before stopping. A well aligned plane is easier to push back
Every few flights do a hot-magneto check. This involves reducing the power to low idle and slowly switch through the magneto settings to 'off' to see if the engine shows signs of stopping. Don't let it stop but this checks if a P-lead has become disconnected or the switch is improperly grounded. While doing this run a check of the oil pressure, the idle setting, and mixture cut off setting.
SHUTDOWN
Radio 121.5 - 1200
Radios OFF (BOTH)
Lights off Mstr sw OFF (Both)
Mixture LEAN
Throttle OUT
Key Off Log Time.
Tie Plane down Replace Control Lock
Replace Pitot Cover
LOCK PLANE.
A post-flight inspection allows an early detection and a more convenient correction of discrepancy. While tying down inspect the exterior. Check the oil and exhaust stacks. Is the air-filter secure. Everything that is right at the end of a flight has a good chance of being right the next time. Before departing check tires, exterior and exhaust system. Report any discrepancies.
Given a choice of where to tie down, always face into the wind. A crosswind tie down means that the aircraft will be trying to weather vane into the wind thus creating side loads on the landing gear. The rudder is the most easily damaged control surface. Cessna rudders will flop and bang in the wind unless exterior gust locks are applied.
Since hydraulic systems can be influenced and damaged by external heat it is not a good idea to park with the parking brake locked on. Freezing weather may freeze the brake pads to the brake disk, too.
If the ropes or chains are supplied at fixed anchor points it is best to have about 45-degree angles to the aircraft tiedown ring. If the ropes or chains slide on a cable they should be vertical to the aircraft. A tight rope is standard but it will lift the cable and poise a hazard to foot traffic. Chains usually have two hooks. The end hook goes into the aircraft tiedown eye and the other hook is used to shorten the chain. Ropes require that you become familiar with tying a bowline or half hitch.
Incursions; Excursions
Incursions are caused by three sources, ATC, pilots, and vehicle/pedestrian. ATC caused incursions remains relatively constant but pilot caused incursions have risen dramatically. When an incursion accident does occur it results in serious fatalities.
Checking for traffic before entering a runway is a basic premise of all ground movement. Knowing where to look is a part of this premise. You should position your aircraft so as to make visual clearance easy and positive. Failure to check both left and right base as well as final approach leaves you vulnerable. Not all aircraft have radios and many who do, do not give position reports.
I recently had a driving experience that made the problem very real. I had a total electrical failure in a Volvo where everything failed but the engine. No radio, now air-conditioning, no electric windows, no radio, no horn, no lights and no signal lights. We were miles from home and mostly multi-lane freeways. I had no way to legally change lanes using hand signals or light signals. Changing lanes was an exercise in caution and spacing. This is the way NORDO aircraft must fly and operate. All aircraft should use the same cautionary procedures at all airports. You must be aware of your position and the likely and unlikely position of other aircraft.
It was a joy to see that way pilots/aircraft cooperated to make the 2000 fly-in at Pickneyville work. A single runway and single mid-field taxiway to and off the runway. As many NORDO as those with coms. Taxiway conflicts had to be coordinated with the landings and takeoffs since the entryway was at mid-field. In my own case I used a short approach and a long landing so that half of the runway could be quickly used by the three or four aircraft waiting to get to the takeoff end. Their getting on to the runway cleared the taxiway for me.
Low Visibility Taxiing
Getting lost is very common at unfamiliar large airports. Early one dark morning I missed a turn at Yuma, AZ. I stopped and asked for assistance. ATC sent a truck to guide me through the construction maze to the assigned runway.
Taxing Basics:
…Ask for help
…Have a taxi chart and use it with compass/heading indicator for guidance.
…Orient the taxi chart 'track up'.
…Use heading indicator to confirm you are on the correct runway.
…A progressive taxi in low visibility does no good.
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