Contents:
...Touch and Go; ...Over-Shoot
landings; ...The Undershoot Landing;
...Land and Hold Short; ...Hard
Landings; ...Power-off Accuracy Landing;
...Landings; ...The
Standardized Landing; ...Winds and landing;
...Crosswind instruction; ...Short
field;...Unpaved Airport; …Precautionary Landings; …Types
of Landings Summary; …Landing
without use of Trim not Recommended; …Stabilized
Approach; …Aiming for the Landing;
… The Decelerating Approach
to Landing; …Anotrher Way of
Saying the Same Thing about Landings; …Instructor
Opinion on Landings; …
Touch
and Go
(Flounder and Flee) (Bumps and Circuits)
20% of the training accidents involve touch and go operations.
I have likened such operations as learning to drive by going around
the same block over and over. It is not that I don't or won't
perform touch and go operations as part of my instruction. I find
such flying not of the 'real' world. As any of my students can
confirm, I do as many landings to the left pattern as to the right.
The go-around, no-flap approach, short approach and other variations
are a standard part of such lessons. However, I do not want my
students to do identical consecutive landings over and over. It
is not conducive to improvement proportionate to the money spent.
Instead, I want my soloed student to practice the departure and
arrival procedures between airports. This is the real world of
flying. I want them to land, taxi, stop and runup at other airports.
I want all the phases of checklists and flying procedures to be
practiced. Touch and go operations correspond to learning piano
by practicing only the scales.
One experienced instructor does not do any touch and go landings with primary students. If such landings are to be practiced the student must be competent in the aircraft operation, cockpit responsibilities are divided and assigned, the runway length is 200% of aircraft requirements and the go-around option always applies as part of the ATC clearance. Complex aircraft should not be used in doing touch and go landings.
Over-Shoot
landings
About 100 aircraft a year run off the end of a runway. These
landings are caused by excessive speed on approach, poor glide
path control, failure to transition to landing attitude and improper
braking. Contributing to these is the failure of the pilot to
anticipate the effects of a calm to quartering tail wind or runway
conditions. The runway behind you is as useful as the altitude
above you.
The Undershoot
Landing
An undershoot landing is far more likely to be a serious accident
than the overshoot because the impact forces are more likely to
be greater and under even less control. As with the overshoot,
the undershoot landing is the result of poor pattern techniques.
There as many causes of poor patterns as there are pilots but
inherent to the poor pattern will be a multitude of excesses.
Too far, too close, too long, too short, too soon, too late, too
much, too little, etc. The unfamiliar pilot will suffer from 'runway
fixation'. He will become apprehensive about the continued existence
of the runway, every few seconds he will tip, turn, or twist both
the aircraft and himself to ascertain that the runway is still
on the ground.
The problem occurs when the pattern results in an approach that is below the configuration and airspeed glide path. There is a proper correction procedure. This means a full power application and a locked yoke to maintain approach speed for so long as it takes to make the glide slope intercept. However, all too often the pilot's perception of the problem is that a partial power adjustment is all that is required. A touch of power and a slight up-pitch of the nose fixes everything, for a moment that is. There has been a decrease of airspeed by a couple of knots. The sink rate increases and in a few seconds we are below the desired glide path. Another touch of power, more pitch-up, lower airspeed and we are again sinking faster below the glide path. We have entered the constantly deceleration approach regimen. One more time and we are behind the power curve. This means that there is insufficient power available to overcome existing drag without lowering the nose. Without altitude sufficient to allow lowering the nose an uncontrolled contact with the ground is bound to follow. This kind of accident is most likely to happen to the low-time-in-type pilot with a high performance aircraft at an unfamiliar airport.
The essence of avoiding the undershoot landing involves establishing, maintaining, or correcting to the proper glide path at the correct airspeed for the configuration. Essential to this is an appropriate pattern. Never let your airspeed fall below the selected approach airspeed. Make all from below intercepts of the glide path with full power applications while holding approach airspeed. On interception only power need be reduced to hold the glide path. Power is your glide path control. Once established more power will make the approach more shallow, less power will make the approach steeper.
Land and
Hold Short
The LAHSO were initiated by the FAA in an effort to
increase airport capacity. LAHSO exists only when there are intersecting
runways, a control tower, 1500' ceiling, three-mile visibility,
good braking and no tailwind. The burden for a successful procedure
rests with the pilot. Lower ceilings are allowed if there are
visual approach indicators such as PAPI. Night operations require
visual vertical guidance, with electronic slopes grandfathered
in for one year.
When an airport has intersecting runways, ATC may approve you for a LAHOS approach. This approach requires that the pilot be acutely aware of his own and his aircraft's capability. If there is any doubt because of a calm, tailwind or night condition, decline he clearance. Failure to decline means that you are expected to land and meet all ATC restrictions. You can always make a go-around but you may need to answer some questions afterwards.
Communications in LAHSO operations can cause problems. I, personally, was called to the tower for the first time in 25 years for missing a "cancel take off" clearance during a LAHSO operation. Neither I nor the other pilot in my plane heard the cancellation. ATC tapes had the cancellation repeated four times. Cause seemed to be a very sensitive volume control where a small change made the difference between off and too loud. This situation occurred on the other end of the LAHSO but the potential for a collision existed and exists in every LAHSO.
Unless you fully understand and accept the pilot responsibilities for either asking for or accepting a LAHSO clearance. Pilots bear full accountability for knowledge related to aircraft performance and the vertical guidance parameters. Electronic and visual guidance procedures waste up to 1000' of useable runway. Current airport information is required as to useable runway lengths and surface condition.
The pilot must have current knowledge of his aircraft capability and limitations referenced to airport conditions. Any lack of knowledge or information will be weighed against the pilot. The pilot has the final responsibility for accepting a LAHSO clearance. The common option of a go-around exists but the need for a go-around is going to be referenced by the FAA against the pilot's acceptance of the clearance. Rejection of the LAHSO clearance may be the best choice even if it delays your arrival. The land mines that exist in LAHSO operations would make non-acceptance of the LAHSO clearance the best way to go. Still, you can expect that with the increase in traffic, ATC will be throwing the LAHSO ball into your court.
Hard Landing
There are actually two different kinds of hard landings. The
most common one is when the approach speed is higher than 1.3
Vso. At the higher speed and a corresponding higher descent rate
and a delayed flare the ground contact results in severe stress
to the aircraft structure. The landing gear, designed to absorb
this impact by flexing or compression will reflex with sufficient
force to make the aircraft airborne again. Now the aircraft is
in the air, slow and unable to develop enough lift to prevent
the second kind of hard landing unless the go-around is promptly
and properly initiated. Without the go-around the aircraft will
fall through any ground effect and give a series of bounces, each
one of which is made worse by the pilot reaction delay. The go-around
is always the best salvage procedure.
The second type of hard landing is where either in a slip or
in a flare the airspeed is allowed to fall below the 55-knot short
field landing speed. Getting slow greatly increases the sink rate
of the aircrarft. The instinctive reaction in this case is to
keep from falling. The instinctive control movement is to pull
the nose up. Nose up makes the airplane go slower and fall faster.
Raising the nose again just makes it worse. The ONLY correction
for being slow on a landing approach prior to flare is to GO-AROUND
WITH FULL POWER. Hold the nose level.. The slower you are the
closer you want to be to the ground. Being close to the ground
gives you the power and acceleration benefits of ground effect
that will not be available to you further above the surface.
Since this type of situation is occuring behind-the-power-curve
and at a high angle of attack, it may be that you will be unable
to accomplish the maneuver without lowering the nose. This lowering
may well result in ground contact. Some hard landings cannot be
prevented beyond a certain point regardless of power. I saw such
a landing by a B-25 in India during WWII.
Power-off
Accuracy Landing
During the flight test the examiner can be expected to pull
the power and advise you to make a power off landing within 200
feet of a specific point on the ground. Since you are always expecting
such an event it comes as no surprise. You already know the wind,
don't you. You quickly determine whether to make a 90°,
180°, or 360° approach with adjustments a required.
You also know that two full trim turns down with the power off
will give you a glide speed of 60 knots, hands-off. Just as in
any constant power approach, the power-off approach speed is for
a trimmed 60 knots.
At a constant glide speed, you will be able to sight over the nose to the runway and determine whether you are high or low. You have done this many times with 1500 rpm. Power off is no different. It is your intention not to apply any flaps until you know you will reach the field, so your no-flap approach will be relatively flat and high/low somewhat more difficult to assess. Every time the runway threshold passes under the nose as you fly 60 knots, you will apply a notch of flaps. Only the straight-in approach or final limits your ability to adjust base for being low or high. If your anxiety has kept you too high go into an extreme slip at 60 knots indicated to get down.
Never dive for the runway. As you know, you can extend your glide distance by removing flaps. Don't do this below 400 feet unless you are over a paved two mile runway or having an emergency. Get your maximum flaps-for-wind conditions in before 200 feet AGL. You will need the altitude to assure complete control in the round-out, flare, and touchdown. Don't sacrifice a good landing in your desire to hit a touchdown point. At 60 knots you will still have 200 feet of float within five feet of the ground. Use it. Always practice using ground effect in every landing. You never know when you will need the skill and experience.
Landings
(Instructor)
A good landing begins with a stabilized approach, a trimmed
nose attitude, and constant airspeed. The student will learn to
recognize how the world looks over the nose on downwind, base,
final, roundout, flare, and rollout. The student will learn to
feel a consistency of control forces used for each application
of flaps, in turns, and at power reduction. This consistency is
especially true for the rudder. The student will learn to recognize
the sounds of the airplane at approach speed, as flaps are added,
and as speeds change. These senses have been repeatedly exposed
to these situations since flying first started. Now, in landings,
the full picture must be flown. We need every skill taught and
learned. It is said that it is very difficult to make a poor landing
from a GOOD approach. Don't change you flap configuration below
200' AGL. Every yoke movement should be "back". Ideally
every power change would be a reduction. A good landing is a combination
of TECHNIQUE, and FAITH, and ANTICIPATION.
Aircraft vertical and horizontal speeds are variables that must become constants for obtaining a stabilized approach. During the pattern the wind varies so as to affect your angle of descent. The final decision as to whether you are high or low cannot be made until you are stabilized on final. Once you are stabilized you make the appropriate adjustments of flaps, power, and airspeed if high; or full power if you are low. Diving for the runway is never appropriate. A good landing cannot have excess altitude or airspeed. This doesn't mean you should touch down at the very end of the runway. Since we normally land with some power, aim far enough past the numbers to cover possible engine failure. Likewise, runway behind you is not going to keep you from going off the end.
The negative side of any landing approach is the pilot's visual perception as to what is happening. As the ground nears, the speed over the ground is perceived as increasing. As the ground nears, the amount of visual ground decreases in our visual field. The ever-increasing speed of closure affects your sensory perception. Your life history of such closure is that something is about to hit you. The normal instinctive reaction is to stop the FALLING. You will overreact on the yoke instead of what should be what should be a shift of your sight field from the immediate runway to the distant runway and then another shift to the horizon as the nose obscures the runway. Control of this movement is an acquired skill. It takes practice of the right kind to maintain your control over your instincts and control movement.
In a like regard there is considerable pilot difficulty in detecting proper runway alignment. Inexperienced pilots line up on and usually land on the left side of the runway. This same pilot is reluctant to correct this misalignment by lowering a wing so close to the ground, no matter how necessary. Instinct leads us to think that airplanes should land level. A pilot must overcome his inhibitions and accept that a combination of rudder and aileron can slide an airplane sideways across a centerline and can just as well stop such a sliding. The proximity of the ground makes the slide more obvious and it is very easy to over-react to this. Landing on one wheel with one wing down to the ground is very unnatural to our senses. Unnatural but very necessary.
Every landing of an aircraft is a complex of many maneuvers,
which are in turn made up of practically all the basic elements
of flight. Of these elements airspeed control is primary. Even
airspeed control is a complex assembly of sound, movement, visual
perception, and memory. Without airspeed control all other elements
and maneuvers have a weak link in the change of competent maneuver
performance.
The first landing introduces a new instinctive element to basic
flying. Up to this point the basic elements have been formed into
maneuvers such as turns, climbs, and descents at altitude. Now
the proximity of the ground introduces a new element. The approaching
ground triggers an instinctive reaction of avoidance. The neophyte
pilot instinctively reacts to halt the closure by raising the
nose. This affects the speed. Anything that affects the speed
affects the landing. Thus, the initial purpose of landing practice
is to show the student that the rate of closure with the ground
controllable. For this reason, our initial practice will not be
landings, but rather go-arounds of increasing proximity to the
ground.
The
Standardized Landing (Instructor)
(The Stabilized Approach)
1. Downwind at altitude and cruise speed.
Faults: Not keeping distance from runway. Runway should be in
sight over edge of window in right traffic. Leaving pattern altitude
before turning base (This is a noise abatement item).
2. Prelanding CHECKLIST:
Fuel, mixture, gauges and instruments. HI/compass
Faults: Running out of time
Untrimmed aircraft
Must include "Go-Around procedure"
3. Abeam the numbers:
Carb Heat, Power to 1500 RPM
Hold heading and altitude
Trim down three full turns for 60 kts
4. Down count on flaps, trim up 1, 60 kts
Turn base
Rudder, forward pressure, back pressure, forward pressure, 60
kts
Faults: Being in too much of a hurry
Being uncertain of trim direction
Angling in toward final approach course
Losing altitude
5. Base:
4 down count on flaps, trim up 1, 60 kts
Turn Final
Rudder, forward pressure, back pressure, forward pressure, 60
kts
Faults: Failing to maintain speed
Failing to adjust base line for high/low
6. Final:
4 down count on flaps, trim up 1, 60 kts
Faults: Delayed recognition of high/low
Improper use of power
Not being satisfied with first 1/3 of runway
7. Roundout:
With runway made level aircraft knee to shoulder high
above runway
Faults: Too high, low, fast, slow
Failure to go around
8. Flare:
Gradual raising nose and reduce power as aircraft
slows. Keep from touching ground.
Faults: Landing on nose wheel
Landing flat
Not getting yoke back and up
Not maintaining runway alignment
Drifting right/left
Failure to go around
Abrupt removal of power
9. Touchdown:
Yoke full back, power off, stall warner activated
Faults: Hard touchdown
Lets yoke go forward
Sees runway
Fails to reduce power
Crooked touchdown
Edge of runway
Holding yoke for taxiing
10. Rollout
Yoke held back, power off, no brakes, flaps up
Faults: Letting nosewheel touch too soon
Braking before raising flaps
Excessive braking
Changing to ground before clearing runway
Holding yoke for taxiing
Applies takeoff power with flaps down
High speed turn
11. Cleanup
Carburetor heat off, flaps up, frequency change
Faults: Forgetting items CHECKLIST
Improper communications
Holding yoke for taxiing
Winds and
Landing
Wind by itself is not the factor that make landing a problem.
Gusts, turbulence and shear are often present and a forceful distraction.
Until a pilot has mastered the difference between the concept
and practice of dealing with the unexpected there will be problems
in winds. In adverse conditions there is simply too much going
on for the incompetent pilot.
I am currently teaching a student who has had upwards to twenty different instructors. The confusion regarding crosswinds has made the student uncertain as to whether a cross-control or crab approach is being used.Cross controlling is an unnatural way to fly an airplane. It is even more difficult if you must think about it. Failure to grasp and apply what is necessary to counter the wind direction and velocity without going through the one-second delayed thought/reaction time is essential. It is anticipation of what is required rather than reaction that makes the difference. In a wind there is simply too many forces in action between the wind, airplane and ground for inappropriate reactions.
The pilot must have a continuous mental picture of what the winds are doing to the airplane as well as a perception of where the runway is even though not in sight. Drift must be corrected with wing low and nose straight with rudder. Otherwise, when the wheels touch a side load places damaging stress on the landing gear.
The mental concept of what is happening and what is required in a crosswind landing is fairly obvious. What is not so apparent is what the pilot must do to deal with all the factors at one time. There is little difference between the process of flying a left or right crosswind on the final approach. However, when the crosswind is blowing you into the runway and giving you a tailwind on base, you had better fly a wider downwind. Expect to make a couple of downwind turns called downwind to base and base to final. The groundspeed illusions involved have been covered elsewhere.
The problem that I have with some students and pilots is that their experience has been limited to winds from one direction. This problem also applies to slips. I make it a point to fly crosswinds in both left and right patters equally. Having parallel runway at my home field helps to make this possible. With this process, a student can learn to just punch in rudder when turning base to final with a tailwind. With a headwind it is necessary to reverse both the bank and the rudder. One method of making crosswind pattern adjustment is to extend your downwind. This will allow you to make final approach crosswind adjustments with some additional time.
The cross-control correction of wind drift is not intuitive. It looks awkward, feels awkward and is difficult to maintain. It is very easy to be behind what is happening if you are not anticipating required corrections. Failure to use the proper crosswind correction will cause undesirable drift. Drift into the wind puts sideload on the upwind gear and any drift with the wind may allow the wind to get under the upwind wing. If you have not stabilized your drift, make an immediate go-around.
The go-around initiated from a cross-controlled configuration requires that with the addition of power no more effort should be made to maintain runway alignment. Using rudder to crab into the wind will greatly improve the aircraft's climb performance. Remain in ground effect while cleaning up the flaps and accelerating to Vy.
You will not resolve any drift problem by getting the wheels on the ground. An aircraft that is drifting or not aligned parallel with the centerline will immediately wander towards the side of the runway. Excessive side load can cause the gear to collapse.
In anything greater than a light crosswind partial to no flaps should be used and the nose should be held off the runway but without trying to affect a full-stall landing. You will arrive at the runway slightly above stall and hold the yoke progressively further over into the wind while holding direction with the rudder. If you get too slow, you will have little drift or directional control, the best thing is to fly it to the runway and continue flying it with rudder and aileron until both main wheels are on the ground. An arrival that is too slow reduces the options to the point where there are no 'right' ones left.
Crosswind
instruction
Loss of directional control in takeoff and landings are number
two and number one in the order of aircraft accident frequency.
These accidents are more destructive of aircraft than of people.
March and April are the most dangerous months for these accidents.
The incompetent pilot will over-react to the crosswind component.
This makes matters worse. The incompetent does not see nor feel
the drift off the centerline, running out of rudder authority,
or the need to go around. Too much too soon, too little too late
is the story of the pilot who does not maintain proficiency in
dealing with crosswinds.
The skills needed for runway alignment may be practiced by making
two mile final approaches into a cross wind runway. Have the student
slide the plane back and forth across the runway centerline. Stop
each time the plane is aligned. The more flaps used, the greater
will be the control pressures needed to attain the desired movement.
The more extreme the slip the greater forward pressure will be
required to keep the 60 kt approach speed. The slip required is
that which maintains parallel alignment with the runway, the rudder
must be able to keep the nose straight to the runway. If either
cannot be attained and maintained the landing should be aborted.
If a gust makes you run out of control authority required to keep
alignment, center the controls and go around. Increasing speed
with the yoke or adding power for prop-blast will give increased
rudder authority. The slip gives you the same aiming view of the
runway as with other landings. Flaps added to the cross-control
of the slip greatly increases the rate of descent. This descent
must be expected and planned for.
Aircraft design requires that there are no uncontrollable ground
tendencies in a 90-degree crosswind up to 20% of Vso. A landing
Vso of 50 should present no dangerous problem in a 10-knot 90-degree
crosswind. Such a landing, in coordinated flight, uncorrected
for the crosswind will cause damaging side loads on the tires,
airframe, and landing gear. The coordinated landing in a crosswind
can cause the aircraft to swerve, turn, and bounce sideways. The
more speed at ground contact the more severe will be the damage
potential. If you are making a crosswind landing that is making
you uncomfortable, go-around and go elsewhere.
The POH will only give you the demonstrated crosswind capability. This is the crosswind found on the day the aircraft was certified. This has nothing to do with what can be done by a competent pilot. The maximum crosswind component, therefore, is determined by the pilot.
I suggest that you begin your crosswind practice using the POH demonstrated capability and raise your limits according to having sufficient rudder authority to keep the nose straight. Authority can be increased by increasing speed and reducing the application of flaps. Pipers have relatively small rudders so make your increases in crosswind components in stages. Don't press your skills into 40-knot winds at 90 degrees...use a taxiway or go elsewhere.
You are most likely to get into high-wind taxiing difficulty when taxiing downwind. Don't leave the tie-down when winds exceed 40% of the flaps up stall speed.
I try to wait until a student has some mastery of the Dutch
roll before using the slip method for crosswind landings. Since
I start Dutch rolls on the second lesson they are usually ready
when we start doing landings. The half Dutch roll required in
the slip landing is relatively difficult to learn let alone master.
The control use is contrary to what is normal and comfortable.
The crosswind slip landing requires considerable practice. I like
to use straight in approaches for crosswind slip landings where
possible in the beginning. After the slip is mastered it is necessary
to teach the crab adjustments required for maintaining an appropriate
pattern. A competent student pilot should be able to keep the
nose straight and runway alignment throughout any final approach
and its varied wind direction and velocity.
Except for the "comfort factor" the slip to landing
in cross winds is better in every respect than the crabbed approach.
Initially use full rudder to get the nose aligned with the runway
centerline, push forward on the yoke to maintain airspeed and
simultaneously roll in enough aileron to offset any drift. Drift
causes side loads. The cross-controlled condition is maintained
into touchdown. At touchdown the aileron is used to prevent drift.
Aileron is held all the way into the wind once you have reached
a safe taxi speed. A perfect crosswind approach, landing, and
taxi.
The wing-low technique is the most common method of crosswind
landing instruction because it works best for most pilots. The
need to add a variable aileron and rudder correction cannot be
done intellectually, it must be in anticipation of what you need
to stop and correct any yaw or drift and what will be needed to
make the upwind wheel ground contact in line with the relative
wind.
Passenger comfort can be enhanced if they are informed of the
normal tilted approach and landing on one wheel. The skill requirement
for such a landing can be taught as the "Dutchroll"
during climb outs. It usually takes about five 2-minute sessions
before performance is acquired. Proficiency takes a while longer.
The highest level of "Dutchroll" skill is the ability
to perform them to steeper banks very, very slowly.
The Dutch Roll is one of the types of instability unintentionally designed into aircraft. The other type is spiral instability. One or the other of these can be designed out of the aircraft. Usually aircraft are a compromise of the two, a little bit of both. Spiral instability is not as objectionable as is the Dutch roll. Dutch roll is usually a stable mode, though it can be unpleasant if not dampened.
Rule of thumb for crosswinds
A wind 30 degrees off the nose has only half the wind velocity
as a crosswind component. At 50 degrees; off the nose the component
is 75% of the wind speed. At 70 degrees; the component is 90%.
You can effectively reduce the component by angling across the
runway.
Short field
No field is short to a pilot unless…
Airspeed is constant
Touchdown is on center line
Touchdown is as spot landing
Characteristics that define short:
1. Obstacles at either end affects go-around and climb/descent
angles
2. Surface and slope affects braking and acceleration density
altitude determines power, thrust and required speed for lift.
3. Pilot should only attempt what can be done for sure.
4. Operational length
5. Pilot skill
6. Wind direction, velocity and turbulence
7. Aircraft landing qualities
8. Weight and distribution
9. Approach corridor
10. Density altitude
11. Runway surface affects acceleration and braking
12. Runway condition; smooth is better than rough. Rough can get
you airborne before the plane is ready to fly.
13. Slope gives gravity a boost and will be more effective than
wind. Land uphill.
Piloting
1. On threshold
2. Go-around skills and capability
3. Minimum speed
4. Weight
5. Willing to cancel
Unpaved Airport
The certification of an aircraft gives considerable leeway to
the manufacture in giving the AFM figures for unimproved airports.
Most any airplane can operate from a golf-course smooth field
that is the kind used to come up with the AFM figures. The landings
are predicated on a steep, idle-power stabilized approach at 1.3
Vso. This is much the same as for a normal landing. You should
remember that a more accurate Vso could be used at weights below
gross. This Vref can be justified should the FAA challenge your
attempt to better the AFM data.
Variations of the AFM approach procedure can be made to work.
A partial power approach can get you in slower. Chopping the power
or even removing the flaps before touchdown have been known to
make the approach short; sometimes VERY short. You might want
to practice some of these procedures at altitude along with another
pilot to jot down the numbers as they occur.You must be able to
stop the sink (altimeter) in the flare before getting the stall
indication. The AFM braking figures are far better than any you
will achieve because several sets of tires were consumed in getting
the figures. When it comes to figuring the AFM total landing distance,
you had best add at least 50%.
Summary:
--Practice before you do it for real.
--Use AFM figures but don't expect to do better.
--Short field is rotate at Vx and climb at Vx
--Soft field uses flaps and off the ground as soon as possible.
--Approaches are steep at minimum airspeed.
--Walk an unpaved runway.
--Make a high obstacle clearance pass and then a low pass.
--Wet grass and gravel cause directional control problems.
-- Expect the unexpected and plan aborting point.
-- Don't attempt it without training , practice and proficiency.
Precautionary
Landings
There are really only three kinds of landings, normal, forced and precautionary. Of these the one that requires the greatest exercise of judgment is the precautionary landing. Sometimes called the discretionary landing, the precautionary landing may occur on or off airport. A discretionary landing off airport is to be preferred to an emergency on-airport landing. The statistical odds will always favor the discretionary landing over the forced landing. In weather the discretionary landing may occur on or off airport in lieu of continued flight.
When remaining airborne is likely to be more dangerous than the statistical odds of surviving a discretionary landing reasonable pilots make the safe choice. A planned discretionary landing is where the pilot is truly the pilot in command of his fate.
Discretionary landings should be made in the event of::
1. Incapacitation
2. Power loss
3. Fading power
4. Serious structural damage or vibration
5. Dusk without electrical power
6. Oil leak with rise in oil temperature
7. Inflight impact
8. Smoke
Types
of Landings Summary
1. Normal, full stall landing
With full stall, full flaps and on 3 degrees glide slope
2. Flapless
With zero flaps and a higher approach speed
3. Short field landing
With full flaps and lower airspeed
4. Simulated forced
Simulated 1000ft AGL pattern, zero flaps on downwind, power off
abeam the runway threshold, go around at 50ft
or go around at touchdown.
5. Precautionary
Landing
without Use of Trim not recommended
The greatest future problem I see in your landing method
is that you never mention the use of trim. You can fly the pattern
in Cessnas without ever using the trim but this will not prepare
you for the skills you will need later on in trimming for airspeed.
Ask your instructor for an, at altitude, trimming lesson. Begin without flaps and simulate a partial power failure to l500 rpm with C.H. Aircraft should enter an easy to remember maximu distance descent close to 65 knots. Leave power constant.
You can go through several stages of putting in incremental flaps and re-trimming for 65 knots as you descend. Make left and right descending turns in each configuration. These turns should be always at the same constant airspeed. It may take several trips to altitude before you get consistent and anticipatory rudder and yoke pressures.
Now take these flap and trim skills into practice patterns
at altitude. Initial pattern speed will usually vary from 80 knots
down to 60 knots on final. Normal landings (See POH) are done
with full flaps on final (no changes below 200') and power off
incrementally and all the way off at touchdown. Every yoke movement
should be incrementally back and up with full extension at touchdown.
This learning/practicing method will prepare you to appreciate thebeautiful engineering/linkage designed into constant power settings, flap settings and trim movement in the Cessna. There is no one (correct) way to fly a pattern. You must learn to vary the pattern with airspeed and flaps at all settings from every point in the pattern beyond the numbers. The element that requires consistency is the touchdown speed, runway alignment and attitude.
War story:
I had an 81-year old student with a Class-1 medical. We couldn't
do touch-and-go's, we did land and rests. This guy flew all over
the patterns but when the ground approached he was on airspeed
at attitude. He used his pilot's license to take his great grandchildren
flying on weekends. Hope I can do as well.
Today's Lesson.
Set my student at 2900' over the end of the runway. Had student
ask for circling decending spiral for landing. Why? On an instrument
approach where you are required to make a circle to land while
keeping the runway environment in sight. In IMC you will be the
only aircraft there. Can't think of a better way.
Stabilized
Approach
The airplane normally glides with its nose up, not down. It
is a good idea to ask a student to hold his hand as though an
airplane in glide and you will often find that students tend to
think of gliding as accomplished with a paper airplane, nose down.
This is an unlearning teaching situation and just one of many
It is only through considered use of light yoke pressure, trim and power that the pilot will gain control of airspeed and approach path. This process should be practiced at altitude until it becomes a ritual process. Flying must not be a part of the problem. Your good approach is a necessity for you to get the required consistent sight picture of the aircraft nose and the end of the runway.
This approach path, on a straight in approach can be miles long. More often it is twisted and turned from downwind, to base, to final. Your perception of the movement of your touchdown point is how you determine to make your corrections. Don't use the nose. Any movement of the nose, up or down will result in an airspeed change. Change the nose, change the airspeed and you are no longer on a stabilized approach.
There is only one speed that is best glide speed for a given configuration. Go any slower and you will cover less distance for the remaining altitude. Go any faster; you will cover more distance. This faster speed will create flare and speed dissipation problems. These speeds are another 'unlearning' problem for student pilots. Diving for the runway, when high, is NOT the thing to do.
Power and flaps are you options. The selection of flaps is dictated by the wind strength and crosswind. Power is best left as a constant with these exceptions. Incremental reduction of power if high will make the glide patch angle increase. When the power is off, the angle can be made steeper by raising the nose and reduce the airspeed. Being low is best corrected by adding full power, while holding forward yoke pressure to maintain constant airspeed. Estimate in counting seconds as to how long it will take to recapture the desired glide path.
The stabilized approach usually begins at pattern altitude.
The aircraft will be at the correct initial arrival speed, be
configured to arrive in a normal descent for a normal landing.
You need to know what it takes to slow the aircraft.
Getting the slower speed is a first priority, then comes getting
the stabilized descent. If the approach is not stabilized,
you are better off to initiate the go-around instead of trying
to salvage what is left.
The advantage of such an approach is multiple. It reduces the
workload, you slow down sooner, and you can see ahead
what is coming. You can think ahead as to what it takes to counter
any adverse wind effect. The reduction of flight
variables means that you can anticipate rather than react. You
will have time to complete your before landing checklist.
Your ability to predict is greatly improved. With the plane flying
stabilized you now have only to fly the needles.
Aiming
for the Landing
A glider is aimed for a specific touchdown point. An airplane
has such an aiming point but it is expected to touchdown beyond
the aiming point. How far beyond is determined by airspeed control.
The actual landing consists of roundout, flare, touchdown, and
ground roll. The relative distances and length of each is directly
related to the initial airspeed and how it is dissipated.
The aim point is, ideally, a stationary point anywhere in the first third of the runway. Should under a stabilized approach with constant airspeed and glide slope, the aim point move toward you, you are going to be high and overshoot. Should the aim point move up and away, you are going to be low. The more steep your approach the better you can judge the aim-point movement and the sooner you can make adjustments.
The configuration, power/speed and wind will determine the glide path flown. In direct strong winds the choice is easy because your ground speed will be much slower that in a calm wind.
This allows you to forget about being long. You can plan a steep full flaps approach with little distance between flare and the end of ground roll. The same wind from the side may mean that you have no effective headwind and may need minimum to no flaps to control the wing-low crosswind landing. When you have little to no effective headwind you must expect to carry some power, add some speed for rudder effectiveness, and have a less than desirable shallow approach. All of these equate into float and a more difficult to select touchdown point. A tailwind will always result in a shallow approach even with full flaps. A ten knot tailwind will double all numbers in the landing approach.
The pilot would very much like to be in control of the slope of his approach. Only in rare instances is this possible. Winds of all kinds can make a difference from turbulence to wind shear. The location of trees and buildings relative to wind direction can affect the landing approach. In windy and gusty conditions it is better never to pull your power all the way off. The reason for this is that the engine and propeller can spool up much more rapidly and effectively if starting from 1500 rpm.
The
Decelerating Approach to Landing
The most insidious of poor landings is that which occurs as
the approach decelerates. This particular approach can occur in
two different situations. The first is attitude driven. The pilot
sets an airspeed and attitude for the flare a bit early and high.
The second is power driven where the pilot comes in shallow and
keeps adding bits of power without re-trimming .
Both of these approaches begin with an illusion that everything is going just fine. Then the pilot senses that the nose is beginning to sink relative to the runway as sighted. The attitude approach will raise the nose to the desired position. The power driven approach will add a bit of power. In both cases there is a resulting loss of airspeed that goes undetected while the attitude is untrimmed. The yoke is more likely to be held with a full-fist grip than with finger and thumb.
In a matter of seconds the nose begins its sink again. Once again the nose is brought up to where it is 'supposed' to be either by yoke input or power input. Once again the airspeed will decay still further. This time the sink occurs sooner and is greater. Immediately the nose is raised by one pilot type or the power added by the other. By this time both the pilots should be aware that there is a problem. You need more airspeed but are too low to lower the nose. You must go-around add a lot of power. Doing the entire process again could mean you are out of power, behind the power-curve and in trouble.
Some aircraft are more prone to this type of crash landing than others. Short wing Pipers are critical on their approach speed because once slowed to a critical slow approach speed they will fall right through any remaining ground effect. The long wing Pipers are critical in the other direction. Any flare made with too much speed will cause a float until next Sunday.
The power driven decelerating approach is caused by a conceptual
problem on the pilot's part. The pilot who believes that adding
power will always get an aircraft moving faster does not understand
just what happens when power is added. Adding only power to an
aircraft without any yoke pressure or trim will cause the nose
to rise to the left and give a drop in airspeed.
This is what causes the power driven decelerated approach. At
some point the aircraft will arrive behind the power-curve where
the only correction possible is to lower the nose and then only
if sufficient altitude exists. A behind the power-curve landing
is not pretty. During WWII I saw one about to occur over some
tents and turned away from the sight.
The attitude driven decelerating approach is caused by a power-off approach where the flare is too high and perhaps with some excess airspeed. The correction for this situation is to hold the aircraft level while allowing some sink and decrease in airspeed. The common error lies in leaving the power off and raising the nose into a flare attitude. The problem with this is that it will increase the rate of speed loss. Loss of speed along with the higher nose attitude will aggravate the situation. The pilot who is flying by attitude alone without speed awareness will be momentarily satisfied with the nose attitude on the horizon. At the lower speed the aircraft will sink again, and again the pilot will raise the nose. At a certain point the sink of the aircraft will not stop when the nose is raised. Only adequate anticipatory power can prevent a hard landing. As with power we are being deluded by our habitual and instinctive reactions. We become so used to raising the nose to stop sink that we continue to use the process at speeds where the reaction only makes things worse. An early go around is always the best solution.
Another
Way of Saying the Same Thing about Landings
…Initially you must plan your descent so as to arrive
at the pattern altitude abeam the selected runway numbers and
on airspeed. The desirable technique is to go slow and steady
with a consistent adjustment of airspeeds and angles of descent
that result in a smooth approach and landing. To do this you must
have practiced the combination of airspeed, power, trim and flaps
that make the desirable smoothness and anticipation possible.
Instructor
Opinion on Landings
Landing the first time. Whenever I fly an airplane, especially
if I have not flown it before, I try to get the "picture"
before I try to land. If it is a "taildragger" you can
sit for a few seconds on the end of the runway. See where the
horizon cuts across the nose. That is where it should be just
before you touch down. With a nose dragger do it on climb out.
You speed on climbout is not much above your landing speed. See
where the horizon cuts the nose on climbout. You want to see that
before you land.
In the actual landing, never worry about "getting it on
the ground." The airplane, once you have removed power, is
NOT going to fly level for very long. Set and trim for your approach
speed. When you turn final look in front of you for the "magic
spot." This is the spot that is neither moving up nor down
in your field of view. If something moves down, no matter how
slowly, in the windshield you will go over it. If something moves
UP, no matter how slowly, you will reach the ground before you
get to it. The spot that moves not at all is the spot you will
reach if nothing changes.
When the runway in front of you stops looking "uphill"
and starts looking like highway in front of you, you are low enough.
Level the airplane out (the roundout) and fly about hip high above
the runway.
Now you peripheral vision becomes important. While looking down
the runway about the same distance you would look when you are
driving a car down the interstate at the same speed, watch the
world coming up in your peripheral vision. You want to start pulling
back on the controls at whatever rate you need to keep the "world"
moving upward VERY slowly. Any time the world starts to go back
down, STOP pulling back. Just hold still until it starts up again,
and then start pulling back to keep it coming up slowly. Before
you know it you will see the nose cutting the horizon at or more
steeply than you did on climbout and the wheels will start to
roll. Then use the rudders to keep it straight.
You do NOT want to be going sideways when you touch down. The wheels don't roll sideways! :-) Use the rudder to keep the nose lined up with the centerline. If the airplane is drifting to the side, lower the wing and slip a little to drift back. You want the drift to exactly stop before you touch down. Keep using the rudder to keep the nose pointed down the runway.
Then level out and try your darndest to keep the airplane from
landing. When it is done flying, it will land all by itself. All
you have to do is keep everything pointed in the right direction
and slow it down until it CAN'T fly anymore. :-)
The desirability of a ground school depends more on you and how
you learn best than anything does. It you are more comfortable
learning at your own pace from a book, buy a couple of good books
and forget the ground school.
If you learn better by having someone explain things to you,
then the ground school is recommended. The CD series or video
tapes are an in-between compromise. They will "explain"
things to you, but it is difficult to ask a question when you
don't grasp something! The CD's or tapes work fine if you have
someone available you can ask when something on the tape or CD
doesn't quite make sense to you. Hope all that helps! :-)
HighFlyer
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