Contents:
…Getting the ATIS; ,,, Ground Radio to Taxi; …Departure Radio; …Arrival Radio; …Non-tower Overflights; …Non-tower Operations; …Unicom; …The Callup; …Intercoms and Headsets; ...Beginning Basic Radio; …Radio Procedures in Brief;...Radio Preparation; ...This Pilot Is Assertive; Six Levels of Assertiveness; ...Talking Airplane; ...Knowing when to say what and how to say it; ...Radio Instruction; ...The Call-up; ...Types of pilots on the radio; ...Don't answer if it's the wrong number; ...Precision Radio; …The Safety of Radio Flight Operations; ...Safety Notice; ...Communication Problems; Communicating Problems; ...When Asking for Help; ...Communication Faults; …Common Mistakes; ...Radio and Traffic Awareness; ...Emergency Location at Work; …Using the FSS; ...A Bit of Terminology; …Stuck mike switch; …Emergency Communications; …Avionics Capability; …Cockpit Radio; …
I have found that it is a tremendous advantage to be able to
get the ATIS the first time every time. I have also found, that
the expense of having the engine running is a prime motivation
to listen and get the ATIS quickly and efficiently. I have had
many pilots come to me who, even with the engine off, as you do
will listen to the ATIS several times . I have received many belated
compliments for using this ATIS method from students who have
gone on to IFR copying of the ATIS and clearances.
I suggest writing the ATIS on the hand. I use a + format and let
the vertical line represent the runway. In the top left quadrant
I put the "name" of the ATIS. At the top of the + I
put the runway used for takeoff and landing. In the top right
quadrant I put the wind direction and in the bottom left quadrant
I put the wind velocity. The lower right quadrant gets at least
the last two digits of the altimeter setting. These are the essentials.
I may make the vertical part of the + into a runway and draw an
vector arrow to show the crosswind direction and velocity. The
other ATIS information can be observed or noted without writing.
Where an instrument runway number is always on the ATIS, ignore
it when it is not the "landing" runway..
Pilots with their heads down have rolled, unknowingly, into other
aircraft while copying the ATIS. You do not need to look down
at a lap-board as you write the ATIS. It is best to keep your
head up and an eye outside the cockpit. Never, never rely on a
parking brake.
The student will benefit from getting the ATIS with the engine
running at all times. The cost for time on the ground will be
recovered many times over in the air. This puts economic, as well
as mental pressure, on his ability to WRITE the ATIS first time
it is broadcast.
--Never transmit on the radio without practicing what to say while holding the microphone to your lips. It does no good to practice without the microphone. Take a deep breath and get all the words out smoothly without pause or punctuation.
--Don't broadcast until you have mastered what and how to say everything.
--The order of words is often as important as the words themselves. For our convenience all practice will use the ATIS as "Alpha".
…Who you are talking to...
…Who you are...
…Where you are...
…What you want...
This should come out an a smooth series of words without punctuation or pauses. Almost every ATC communication needs to be acknowledged and sometimes repeated back for verification.
All runway assignments are to be readback whether on the ground or in the air. A clearance to taxi lets you taxi anywhere on the airport as long as you do not intrude on the runways in use.
Have clearly in mind where you are, where you are going, and the route to get you there. If ever in a situation where you are unfamiliar as to where you are or how to get where you are going on the ground advise the controller. If ever in doubt, ask for help.
This tells the controller that you expect him to advise you where to go and turn as you proceed. It is a sign of professional competence to admit when you require help. It is just as important to know how to get help as it is to know the way. You are going to be landing at many strange airports where the ability to get timely assistance is important.
After arrival at the runway, a direction of departure must
be determined. It is a good practice for the departure communication
with the tower to include "on course to (place)" and
a request for a time check. This serves as a mini-flight plan
which is recorded as well an experience in noting time. It is
more specific as to direction with regard to traffic advisories.
This departure allows us a direct route if approved by ATC. We
don't have to go there, just head in that direction. Read the
advisory signs at all airports.
Practice until your call-up comes out smoothly as...
Call-up
Clearance
… into position and hold"
This clearance MUST be acknowledged since it confirms our understanding
and intention to stop in position.
We say..."5K position and hold"
We must hold until we hear...
…. cleared for takeoff on course (place) approved"
We may takeoff and proceed on course without further acknowledgment.
A possibility is ...
… hold short landing traffic"
You say...
… holding short"
Any clearance using the word "hold" must be acknowledged. (I have taught this procedure for years, it became an FAR in 1992). This means that we may taxi so as to clear the approach area but we may NOT cross the hold bars to the runway.
(Airport tower) Cessna 9 number and position0 at two-thousand eight-hundred with _____ request (arrival and runway) will report …
If you have occasion to cross in the vicinity of an uncontrolled airport, it is worth your while to monitor the CTAF frequency and even give sequential reports of your altitude and position in passing. It is only through frequent communication that everyone flying can provide and maintain situational awareness. The radio call you make may save your life.
Most midair collisions and near misses occur within a couple of miles of non-tower airports.
Unicom
1.) Every tower airport has a unicom on frequency 122.95.
The callup gives, "Airport name unicom, aircraft identification
and request. Commonly used to order fuel, services, or transportation.
122.95 is the universal nationwide unicom frequency for TOWER
fields. Only at the very largest airports will this frequency
operate on a 24-hour basis.
2) Many uncontrolled airports may offer unicom service on the CTAF frequency given on the sectional. This means that there may be someone on the field to respond to a radio call during normal working hours.
3) Giving position reports is an AIM recommended practice. NORDO aircraft can't give or hear them. See and be seen is the backup procedure.
"Name of field unicom, aircraft identification, location, altitude, request traffic advisories (or other request)and name of the field." If there is not unicom response all further transmissions should be addressed to "traffic".
Considering that the interior of a general aviation aircraft at cruise has a noise level at 90dB or equivalent of being within 15' of a heavy-rock band speaker, you should do all that you can to protect your hearing. Noise at this level will damage unprotected hearing. Damage is proportional to the duration and intensity of the noise. Once lost hearing can never be regained by you can protect what is left by using good intercoms and headsets. Hearing is irreplaceable.
When you can't hear'em, you really can't hear'em. In conversation we can lip-read the differences but over a microphone the higher frequencies between 3000 and 6000-hertz are chopped off at about 4000 hertz. Hearing difficulties you may be having may be an equipment problem as well as a biological one. Volume alone will not improve hearing or comprehension. Where there is a conflict of sounds and noises we fail to hear consonants first. The use of a noise-attenuating headset reduces the conflicting sounds. Different headsets are better at different frequencies. Try them out in an aircraft before buying.
Letters 'f' and 's' are most difficult to distinguish. Certain numbers such as seven, zero and six begin with a consonant sound that a person with a high frequency loss may not decipher. Two and three give difficulty, also. If you have subjected your ears to loud sounds such as gun shots, rock music or engine noise you may have temporary threshold shift. Over extended periods such sounds damage the cochlea cilia and cause permanent threshold slips. Once destroyed, the cilia never work again. While some hearing loss is normal with age given reasonable protection good hearing will last a lifetime.
A common pilot fault is completely failing to hear ATC. This is usually caused by over-absorption with the airplane. The post-landing trauma seems to occur at the same time the tower is giving you taxi directions and frequency changes. Usually you will be told to cross an active runway before changing to ground frequency or to hold short and then contact ground. Traffic advisories and sequencing seems to be unheard quite often. Acknowledge communications where you know they are directed to you and ask about any communications where you are uncertain.
A miscommunication either in saying or hearing may be minor
or very serious. An ATC facility may record over 100 errors per
day. The number one avoidable safety problem on a day-to-day basis
is poor radio technique by pilots. A single radio call that should
take five seconds will take a minute and three exchanges. An erroneous
position report is potentially more dangerous than no report.
Many student pilots believe that by tuning and listening to aircraft
radio communications that they will be able to improve their skills.
I only wish that this were so. On any given frequency you will
hear all levels of competence and incompetence. You are better
off not to listen until your own skills have reached a level to
where you can distinguish the good, bad and ugly.
If you use a tape recorder on your flights, you must be sure that
your patch cord has the proper impedance. A Radio Shack cord with
gray or black connectors will work with a 9-volt portable system.
An aircraft hard-wired system operates on 12 or 24 volts and must
have a 1-meg resistor installed to prevent overdriving the input
to the recorder. The use of a tape recorder is the best way I
know to improve learning retention. When you change what you read
and hear into your own words it becomes a part of you.
Not every shop is capable of repairing the equipment. Often only factory repair is feasible. Radios are usually built to a technical standard order (TSO) and only repairs to that level meet FAR requirements.
1999 FAA cheange regarding: Pilot's responsibility:
FAA interpretive rule indicates that since pilots are obligated to maintain a listening watch on appropriate frequencies, they are also responsible for following ATC Instructions even if not heard.
Talking effective airplane requires the ability to express thoughts using a very specialized vocabulary designed for brevity using a convoluted syntax which emphasizes clarity while requiring assumptions with the expectation that complete and accurate information is being given and understood. Talking airplane means that instead of writing shorthand we are talking it. Not all pilots are equally proficient in talking airplane. Over the years some terminology has been dropped or changed. The incorrect use of a term when used in talking shorthand will completely change the meaning. Still, the best advice for a beginner is, "Do not be afraid to use the wrong words." so much of ATC procedures is 'canned' that it gets easier the longer you use it.
The use of non-standard phraseology, antiquated vocabulary, and politeness can inhibit the verbal and mental exchanges required in flying. The vocabulary of modern aviation gives very special meanings to uncommon words and uncommon meanings to special words. 'Clearance' or 'cleared' is the most common example of this.
As any married person should know, you cannot assume that what you said was understood or even heard on the other side. Important to you may not be equally important to the listener. When talking airplane we must communicate both meaning and importance. As in marriage, the failure to communicate in flying is most often just a minor irritant. But not always. When safety is compromised by the failure of communication, hazards are created for all concerned. You can hear ATC better when you know what to expect. Key words for a failure to hear are, "Say again".
The words, the sequence they are in, and even the way they are said can make critical differences in safety. Good communication promotes cooperation. Time critical information must be exchanged, understood, acknowledged, and appropriately acted upon. Delay in any phase of the exchange, understanding, acknowledgment, or action contains an inherent hazard.
There is a moral quality involved in good communications. You must accept that the most likely problem lies under your control. As often as not the volume control. Plan your communications so that your patience will not be tried. Don't wait until the last moment to get through. Allow for the inexperience and skill shortages of others. Hope that other pilots will be as prudent toward you shortcomings.
If you are at all unfamiliar with what to say, say your location, or any other aspect of what to say on the radio, orally rehearse the entire communication process or better yet write it out word for word prior to flight. Over 50% of learning to fly will involve becoming radio capable.
A pilot must have his priorities in order. Getting them in order will vary in difficulty according to background but the sequence of order is indisputable. Talking should never interfere with keeping the airplane in the air, on course and avoiding impact.
Learning how to activate, tune and set radios is the first basic. The more you can reduce the process to fundamental steps and sequence the better. Next comes knowing when to talk. Don't be in such a hurry that you will have things to do when ATC responds. Get everything done ahead of time before practicing your communications. Know when to talk by preparing ahead of time, before you even get into the plane. Practice with the mike to your lips.
There are some general principles to aircraft communications with slight variations between ATC agencies. FSS, radar, ground and towers have slightly different procedures and requirements within the general principles. Always tell an FSS the frequency you are using and the name of the nearest VOR on initial contact. Initial contact with a radar facility will give only your aircraft identification. This will be followed after ATC acknowledgment with location, altitude, and intentions. Tower initial contact contains identification, position, altitude, and intentions or request. Altitude is a part of this to serve, along with position, as a protection from other aircraft.
Who you are talking to
Concord Ground, Napa Tower, Travis approach, Oakland Radio,
Rio Vista Unicom, Byron Traffic
Who you are
Manufacture/Type of aircraft, full call sign except for N
(November)on initial call-up
Student solo add "student pilot" when giving full call
sign on initial call-up
Subsequent calls use last 3 elements only
Where you are
East ramp, clear of 32L, between runways, Benicia at 2000,
10 south at 3000
What you want
Taxi with Alpha, landing with Bravo, fly through your airspace
at 2000, right crosswind, straight-out, on course...
Request traffic advisories, over (used to approach/departure)
Radio
Procedures in Brief
Radio proficiency is demonstrated by use of just a few basics.
Tell ATC who you think he is, who you are, where you are, and
what you want. The AIM is the primary source of communication
information and procedure. If a pilot has not been taught from
the very beginning the proper ATC communications and their ever
so slight variations in differing agencies the entire process
becomes formidable and confusing. It is essential that your communications
procedure include a listening watch on frequency prior to keying
the transmitter.
The A-B-C-D-E-G airspaces have communication variations overlying the basic similarities above.
1. Any aircraft and pilot in Class A airspace must be IFR certified with certain required equipment such as DME above 24,000 MSL. All Class A flight is on an IFR flight plan, this requires constant communication contact, adherence to ATC instructions and IFR clearances.
2. Any aircraft in Class B airspace must be on either a VFR or IFR clearance to enter, properly certified or endorsed as a pilot, and in constant communications contact. All ATC instructions and clearances must be acknowledged and followed unless deviations are authorized. Class C operations are different only in that a clearance is not required for entry, only a contact in which ATC uses your identification. In both B and C airspace you will be going to or from tower and an approach facility.
B and C departures may require contact with an additional Clearance Delivery frequency for departure instructions and transponder squawk. You are required to readback these instructions to ATC. After getting your instructions from Clearance Delivery you go to ground for taxi instructions.
Classes B, C and D airspaces use ground control for safe separation of aircraft in the airport movement areas. Airport movement areas are supposed to be separated from non-movement areas by a double dashed yellow line. Many such areas are still undefined. You can best find an unknown ground control frequency ahead of time from behind the chart legend page or in the A/FD. Most ground frequencies are 121. something. Other than 121. something is only used when they run out of frequencies due to airports in close proximity.
3. Class D airspace exists only when a towered airport is operating with a tower. Radar may or may not be available with some limitations as to available squawks and clearances. Aircraft are required to establish contact and get an arrival sequence prior to entering Class D airspace. No notice to ATC is required on leaving Class D airspace. Many towers have a form of radar known as BRITE (Bright Radar Indicator Tower Equipment) which is a remote display from a radar facility. BRITE is much like a digital TV. It allows the tower to sequence and provide separation. Specific authorization is required for the use of BRITE by a tower.
An airport tower is responsible for the sequencing of aircraft to and from the active runways. No separation is guaranteed though some may be provided. You are expected to follow all ATC instructions unless you can negotiate a change or declare an emergency. Clearances can be refused.
Class B, C and D airports have Automatic Terminal Information Service. This service gives alphabetically sequenced voice reports, NOTAMS, time of report (Usually 45 minutes after the hour.), sky condition, visibility, temperature and dew point (Celsius), wind direction and velocity, altimeter setting, active runway and IFR approach in use.
Surface wind directions of the ATIS are given as magnetic and in knots. Weather is divided into eighths of a circle or every 45 degrees. A particular obscuration may cover so many octas of the horizon in a particular direction. ATIS ceilings are AGL. Ceilings over 5000' and visibilities are omitted.
4. Radio use in Classes E and G are legally optional but any pilot who exercises the option not to communicate or listen is exposing himself and most other aircraft to unnecessary risk.
The best way to avoid radio surprises is to pre-compose what you are going to say for each separate situation as it occurs on a flight.
Taxi Call:
Get the ATIS.
Call GROUND give your identification, position, ATIS name, and
any request. If you have understood the ATIS and other aircraft
communications you should be aware of what the runway instructions
will be as well as any warnings about inbound or outbound traffic.
When given a runway assignment you must acknowledge by repeating
back the
runway assignment.
Takeoff Call:
Call TOWER, give your identification, position, and a pre-planned
departure request to a specific location. If you have been listening
to aircraft communications you can anticipate which aircraft poise
a conflict and anticipate ATC warnings by including as part of
your call that you are looking for traffic...(kind and where)
Departures, other than a standard 45-degree, must be requested. A straight-out, crosswind, downwind, or 270 will get you going in a general direction. A general direction will not allow ATC to give a traffic warning advisory nearly as well as a specific destination.
The assumption is that both you and ATC are aware of which way your destination may be and that inbound or outbound traffic knows the area well enough to tell if a traffic conflict is going to occur. The way you use the radio will protect you. The way you are able to interpret the radio calls of other aircraft provides even further protection.
Arrival Call:
Get the ATIS. Based on the ATIS, plan your arrival as to reporting
point, descent angle, and pattern entry. Practice your call before
you arrive at a reporting point. Just as listening to other aircraft
prior to and during takeoff will serve to warn you of other aircraft,
so will listening for potential traffic conflicts prior to and
after your call-up for landing serve to protect you.
Take a deep breath and very smoothly, without punctuation pauses, call the TOWER. Give your identification, position, altitude, and ATIS name. State your arrival intentions or request along with the report that is standard for that arrival. A 45-degree arrival to downwind does not need to be requested. You report turning downwind. A straight-in or base entry must be requested and reports are normally made two miles out.
The best call-up begins by giving ATC's identity, your N-number, a statement of your situation (position and altitude or problem, a statement of what you would like to do. The assertive pilot is always learning about the mistakes of others. The more you know of how another pilot screwed up, the less likely you are to let it happen to you. The highest level of learning is based on the mistakes of others.
A pilot is not a passive bystander; he is and is expected to be an active participant in what is happening. To be an active participant the pilot must know what is going on both in his aircraft and in the space around his aircraft. For many the mantle of command that comes with being a pilot requires a personality adjustment. The pilot is expected to demonstrate a level of communication and self-confidence related to his knowledge of the situation. No pilot should let ATC intimidate him into doing that which he considers unsafe or beyond his competence.
A pilot needs to actively listen to all the words coming over
the radio, not just those transmissions directed to his aircraft.
Be prepared to "assert' yourself to the level required if
a situation arises. Being non-standard is likely to use up twice
as much time to say half as much, and you will probably need to
repeat all or part of it back if the controller can't rearrange
what you say to fit his brain or computer.
Many student pilots put themselves into flight situations where
the perceived ATC, the feared ATC, and accepted voice of authority
takes command of the aircraft. The same thing happens when the
more experienced pilot has failed to absorb the new communications
knowledge needed to stay proficient and assertive in 1994 airspace.
The pilot needs to know how and when to challenge an ATC clearance
when a suggestive level of communication will make things better.
Let ATC know if you think a particular situation will be unsafe.
Practice and experience can make it a better flying world for
the pilot.
This means that you should know what is right and be prepared to support your sense of rightness. This is usually and properly done on the radio. If you think you are right you must be prepared to state your position in a positive, confident and persistent manner. This communication is different from speech tones and words, which imply hostility.
The pilot is expected to use a level of communication and self-confidence related to his knowledge of the situation. A pilot needs to actively listen to all the words coming over the radio, not just those transmissions directed to his aircraft. Being non-standard is likely to use up twice as much time to say half as much.
Six
levels of assertivenss
1. Passive........................ ATC tells you what to do
2. Informational............... ATC says "Approved as requested."
3. Offering alternatives ....You or ATC offers another choice
4. Being critical............... You say your way is better
5. Expressed opposition.. You don't want to do it ATC's way
6. Open conflict............. You won't do it ATC's way. Declare
an emergency
The poorly prepared student or pilot, is all to often, willing
to let ATC dominate. ATC can and will make mistakes. The passive
pilot acceptance of ATC clearances means that he is just going
for the ride. The lowest level of radio proficiency is where the
pilot expects to do what ATC says. ATC takes command of the aircraft.
The pilot needs to know how and when to challenge an ATC clearance
and when a suggestive level of communication will make things
better. This means that you should know what is right and be ready
to support your sense of rightness. This is usually and properly
done on the radio staying inside the boundaries of #2 and #3.
ATC has ways to handle those pilots who resort to #4, #5, and
#6.
The best, in my opinion, pilot level of communication with ATC
begins by giving ATC's identity, your identification, and a statement
of your situation (position and altitude or problem, a statement
of what you would like to do and finally obtain ATC clearance.
If no clearance is obtained you can now turn it up a notch by
going into the extreme politeness mode. This fourth level contains
implied criticism and should be avoided unless your sense of righteousness
is prepared for the next level of confrontation.
Do not anticipate that the levels of assertiveness is a guarantee
that nothing will go wrong. The assertive pilot is always learning
about the mistakes of others. The more you know of how another
pilot screwed up, the less likely you are to let it happen to
you. The highest level of learning is based on the mistakes of
others.
Air Traffic Control has a standardized way of saying things.
You are also expected to standardized your radio procedures to
conform to the ATC form. However, certain airports do have slightly
different procedures used to conform to local conditions. There
are a variety of ways to say something on the radio but there
is only one best way. The more acquainted you become with the
standard procedures the better you can anticipate ATC thinking
and communications. I feel that it is much better for the pilot
to take charge of the situation by making suggestive requests
to ATC.
You must learn the ATC method of communicating. It is a special
language that once learned and understood makes everything you
say brief, clear, and understandable. To get it right you must
rehearse. You rehearse to reduce the number of words, to get all
the needed information stated, and to get it out as a smooth unpunctuated
stream of words.
Standard radio phraseology and procedures have been developed
to maximize the communication time available. Controllers are
trained in this but pilots often are not. The pilot training weakness
in this area becomes more apparent at the Private Pilot IFR level.
Pilots need to maintain the integrity of aircraft communications
by knowing and following standard procedures and by knowing where
the problems lie. Memorize the standard phrases and ATC responses.
Aircraft communication is without most of the punctuation, most
of the prepositions and courtesy words used in ordinary speech.
Such speech requires a breaking of years of habit patterns. Speak
as though it were a telegram with emphasis on clarity, the order
of wording and brevity. Don't ask for special favors if it will
inconvenience another plane. Being inconsiderate disrupts the
system for everyone.
Talking airplane well has to do with using key words in a relatively
precise order. For example the inversion of these words in a ground
communication will completely reverse the implied intent. ".transient
parking taxi or taxi transient parking". Most ATC communications
contains 'key' action words that Immediately follow the ACID (aircraft
identification0 attention getter). Expect words like, turn, heading,
Contact, expect, … The key words are used to get your attention
and then direct your actions. Consistent use of the correct words
in the correct sequence are those you are most likely to understand.
Saying the right thing at the right time goes hand in hand with
a pilot who will be in compliance with the FARs and standard operating
procedures. He is where he supposed to be in the pattern, performing
as Is to be expected. Common mistakes are making misstatements
as to distance and giving aircraft heading instead of direction
from the facility. It is not unusual for ATC by intonation and
vocabulary to help a pilot make a choice that is suited to the
controller. This situation can be avoided if the pilot is knowledgeable
enough to know his options.
ATC controllers like to consider them a professional technicians.
Often they perform as craftsmen. Its been said that the sign of
a craftsman is the ability to make mistakes appear as though they
occurred on purpose. Aircraft separation is the primary product
of ATC which is accomplished by selective use of words. Controlers
use words designed for their efficiency of time and meaning. There
is only so much frequency time available. It is quite easy for
a controller to make things more difficult for a pilot who is
wasteful of frequency time. It is, likewise, quite easy for an
incompetent pilot to bring an otherwise efficient operation into
a screaming controller.
A pilot's competence first shows in his communications. Know what
to say, when to say it, and most importantly how to say it. Be
brief without giving up accuracy and completeness. Mentally rehearse
what you are about to say before you say it. ATC will make mistakes,
don't hesitate to question an ATC communication that you suspect
as being in error.
The use of standard terminology when describing your location
in the airport arrival/departure pattern is important. When you
hear other traffic you must be aware as to the potential hazard
in their location's relationship to yours. Don't hesitate to give
your position and altitude as an information check to both other
pilots and tower. Tell tower you are looking for reported traffic,
have traffic, or negative traffic if unable to locate after 30
seconds. It always helps both the tower and other aircraft if
you can include your altitude as well. Always advise if you are
at other than a standard altitude by including the word "high"
or "low". It never hurts to include the runway designation
where there may be a choice between left and right runways.
Should you find yourself flying in a manner that avoids use of
the radio, consider that trying to conceal a proficiency deficiency.
It is far wiser, safer and cost effective to challenge the situation.
Every time you leave out essential information ATC will prompt
you to fill in the blank information. A tape of the procedures
will help you get it right next time. Make an effort to minimize
the use of prepositions. The better your initial call-up the easier
will be any subsequent transmissions.
--Always use your identification and avoid unauthorized transmissions.
ATC will let you talk to another aircraft on request.
--Make brief transmissions but do not use contractions such
as "can't"
--Use standard formats to say headings, distances and altitudes
as separate digits
--"Affirmative" is the only way to say "yes".
--Rehearse aloud before you key the microphone. Use a uniform
rate of speech and standard phraseology
--If you have any doubt as to what was said have it repeated by
using the term "Say Again" and your call letters.
--Let the world know that you are a student pilot when you are
solo.
--When you key the mike it takes a split second before it will
record what you say. Don't chop off your beginning by talking
too quickly. In reverse the same thing applies when through talking.
-- To have ATC repeat something use the words "say again"
and your identification.
--Controllers make mistakes, protect yourself by knowing where
you are, where everybody else is, and what you are supposed to
do.
I orient the student with a pre-selected airport checkpoint for which we have practiced the radio procedure on the ground. I have the student copy the ATIS and practice the call-up. The advantage of using Napa is that the patterns for the 18 runways are directly north, south, east and west. This somewhat simplifies orientation for the student for each leg of the pattern.
A typical call-up would be as follows:
"Napa Tower Cessna 6185K Benicia at 2500 with Alpha will
report left downwind for 18 requesting closed traffic with the
option " (Note: All radio communication is said and written
without punctuation.)
The student makes the call-up and will do all the radio work until
we are downwind. Prior to solo, the instructor will do all radio
work and assume all traffic responsibility. This enables the student
to concentrate on his flying. It helps if this can be done at
an airport that has parallel runways. Every effort should be made
to do as much flying in right turns as in left turns during all
instruction and practice.
The instructional practice, at all controlled airports, of having
the initial radio call up include such phrases as, "request
right base will report two mile base" in anticipation of
the ATC clearance serves a dual purpose. It makes the student
PLAN the arrival and become more sensitive to the possibility
of an ATC error. An additional benefit of this instructional process
is that the student can then use his knowledge of airport checkpoints
for traffic awareness. An airplane reporting at a point on the
other side of the airport can be virtually eliminated as a hazard,
whereas your downwind entry may be in conflict with an aircraft
reporting two-mile base.
It is best that the pilot operate at the informational level of
aircraft communications. You can't give information if you don't
know the information to give. This is the radio system that I
try to teach my students. It goes beyond a mere AIM call-up by
giving altitude, a request and what you expect to do. Further,
my students are expected to be capable of operating at the suggestion
level. This means that they are capable of making and suggesting
a short approach, change runways, make 360s, extended downwind,
etc. before ATC sees the need.
When arriving at a tower airport you must plan your communications
both as to distance, the speed of your aircraft, and the available
reporting points. The faster you are going the further out you
should communicate so as to allow the controller to plan your
sequence. Additional knowledge of aircraft types and relative
speeds will lead to a further refinement of this skill. Usually,
between 7-10 miles out from an Class D airspace will allow you
time to get the ATIS, listen to tower activity, plan the most
economic arrival and make your call-up. Be as exact as to location
and altitude as you can. Be sure to practice before you arrive
at your call-up point. The only arrival that need not be specifically
requested is the downwind entry. If you do not say that you will
report downwind, the controller will tell you to make such a report.
If the straight in or base entry is desired, it must be requested
and the tower will require a two-mile reporting point or call.
Request to overfly above pattern altitude if you are at all uncertain
as to how make your entry. Perhaps the most dangerous of all flight
situations is to make an airport arrival incorrectly. If you are
at all uncertain, go to "slow flight" and ask for assistance
from ATC. The willingness and readiness to admit the need for
help and to ask for it is the ultimate sign of flying maturity.
Only the incompetent pilot thinks he is supposed to know everything
and is consequently reluctant to ask for help.
The pilot must be knowledgeable as to his present position in
relation to the immediate and neighboring aircraft and space.
You can't be comfortable on the radio until you know both what
to say and when to say it. The basic principles of communications
are the same everywhere in the system. It is important to practice
before actually keying the microphone.
A checkpoint call-up difficulty is when there are no good (known)
visual points for your call-up. Then it is necessary for the pilot
to advise ATC by compass direction. FIRST, make sure the heading
indicator is correctly set with the compass. THEN, locate the
direction to an identifiable location such as the airport. NOW,
note the opposite side of the heading indicator and the location
of one or two of the letters N, S, E, W. relative to this point.
If a single letter is within 10 degrees you use that letter. If
this opposite point is between two of the letters you use terms
such as NE, NW, SE, or SW. Do not try to please ATC by agreeing
with a suggestion such as, "Are you NE of the airport?"
without confirming with the heading indicator. IF YOU ARE UNCERTAIN,
say so.
For differing reasons some pilots have difficulty orienting themselves.
Draw a diagram of the airport with pertinent checkpoints at two
and five miles. Go over the arrivals on the diagram one runway
at a time. Be prepared to fly with ATC approval, a two-mile and
five-mile circle around the airport at 2000' with the student.
Point out the checkpoints used for arrivals for straight in, 45's
to downwind, and base entries to the various runways.
The position of the runway number on the heading indicator should
be taught as an indicator to runway arrival. For a downwind 45-degree
entry, with the aircraft pointing toward the landing end of the
runway, the number of the runway will be at the right or left
rear 45-degree mark on the heading indicator. For a base entry
the number of the runway will be at the right or left 90-degree
mark on the heading indicator. For the straight in the runway
number will be on the nose of the heading indicator. An airport
diagram should be studied both before and after the flight.
You should know your home airport better than any others. You
should have checkpoints that give straight-in, bases, and 45-degree
downwind entries for any runway. You should know all the reportable
points in arcs of two, beyond five, ten, and fifteen miles around
your airport. You should also have clearly in mind the safe, obstacle,
noise abatement, and minimum altitudes for all directions on these
arcs. You should become knowledgeable as to the high traffic areas
for local aircraft, transient aircraft, helicopters, etc.
The student will be given the radio for making the departure request.
The student will be coached again on the return flight as to checkpoints
and radio procedures to be used. The procedure for determining
the most economical airport arrival was discussed before departure.
Hopefully, things work out as planned, if they don't adjustments
will need to be made. This process of changing airport arrival
plans is an important part of the process.
Once you have landed and are clear of the runway make contact
with ATC. Do not proceed until you are cleared and FULLY understand
your taxi route. If you require constant taxi assistance, ask
for it. Do not taxi into an unknown situation. The way you ask
ATC for assistance and your willingness to do so is a sign of
competence.
Radio Star
Majored in public speaking. Punctuates everything said. Uses all
prepositions and adjectives to excess.
Mike Fright
Hesitant speech pattern with long pauses and non-verbal noises.
Mental Telepathy
This pilot leaves out essential information in the believe that
ATC has
the required experience to know who he is, where he is, and what
he wants to do.
How Abouts
This creative pilot would take over ATC's prerogative of controlling
aircraft and offer his "how about' suggestions as to how
things could be done his way.
Car 54
This pilot doesn't know where he is. He doesn't know how to tell
ATC that he is geographically misplaced. He tells what he sees
instead of where he is.
Dangerously similar aircraft call signs can be the cause of
a disaster. A mix-up is most likely to occur at the worst possible
time. The problems' source can be on either end of the process,
ATC or pilot. Numbers are a constant source of radio problem because
they are used for altitude, airspeed, directions, frequency and
x-ponder codes as well as tail numbers. Transposition is the most
common occurrence and it is important for the pilot to catch them
and correct them as soon as they occur. Similar numbers are easily
confused as 300, 330, and 030 when giving headings.
We hear and ATC hears what they expect to hear. It is fairly common
the 'hear' what you expect when it is not even said. This is called
selective hearing. Careful listening and careful readback is essential.
When the situation becomes stressful, cut down on the excess of
technology you are scanning. KISS. Keep It Simple Stupid. Under
overload you will lose your system of checking the instruments
and the checklist. Careful listening to the radio even under stress
can ease the communications load. You will pick up when ATC is
talking to someone other than yourself. Whenever you have any
doubt, call for confirmation and give any readback with your full
aircraft identification. Being certain is a great stress reducer.
ATC communications are designed to be a logical flow of information.
anything unusual stands out. When possible always read back transmissions.
If you get it wrong you will be corrected. If you don't know what
to say, stick to approved phraseology. ATC has short attention
spans but long memories. Better to ask for help and not need it,
than not to ask for help when you need it.
Just as you need to prepare for your initial call-up to the
controller, so does the controller need to prepare for your arrival.
Make your call-up from a given checkpoint that will enable you
and ATC to arrange a planned arrival.
Certain elements of conversation are assumed and need not be repeated
or augmented by additional words. Once contact is established,
there is no need to keep addressing ATC by name each time. If
you indicate a certain location on the ground or in the air, you
should elaborate your intentions only if they are other than to
taxi or land. Most of your intentions are very predictable by
ATC, just as are most ATC instructions. Always confirm if any
ambiguity exists.
It's proper to acknowledge ATC transmissions with the last three
alphanumeric of your aircraft. As a student it is better for you
to read back all instructions. "Wilco" means that you
understand and will comply with the instructions but this is not
as assuring to ATC as a complete readback. By common practice
a clearance to takeoff may not require an acknowledgment. If you
feel that you cannot comfortably comply with an ATC clearance
due to lack of knowledge, understanding, or familiarity just say,
"Unable". ATC will then try to come up with an alternative.
This is a much better option than flying blindly ahead. Unexpected
maneuvers in the pattern of an airport are sure to get you an
FAA invitation.
--Transmission of a call sign attached to information given using standard terms, technique, and format.
--Receipt of the information by careful listening and an accurate
readback or acknowledgment.
--Confirmation of the acknowledgment and readback. Never assume
a clearance look for inconsistencies. Learn from mistakes of others.
--At any of these three points a "verify" transmission
regarding uncertainties is always appropriate regardless of how
busy traffic may be.
A pilot's readback of taxi instruction with the runway assignment
can be considered confirmation of the runway assignment."
The foregoing is a new FAA required readback when given a clearance
to taxi by ground control or tower. This ruling is effective throughout
the United States
Communication problems tend to appear at the same places. Some, such as similar aircraft identification, altitudes and headings will always be there. Using your aircraft manufacturer as an addition to your call sign is a good preventive for such identification mistakes. Clear enunciation and the elimination of jargon and non-professional phraseology can reduce hear-back and read-back differences. Headings are always given as three digits. The "usual" spring loaded clearance you always get may not be there this time. Don't be too quick to key the radio. You will have plenty of time if you have planned and practiced your radio procedures far enough ahead.
If ATC should give a clearance involving checkpoints or procedures with which you are unfamiliar, state "unfamiliar" immediately and provide the level of information with which you are familiar. The immediateness with which you do this is important since the sooner you provide ATC options the better it will be for you.
Certain verbiage is best avoided as antiquated, inaccurate, excessive, or unnecessary. "Roger" does not mean "yes", "affirmative" means "yes". Certain words should be omitted because they are obvious. "This is", "With you" are excess terms repeating the obvious and should not be used. The more overs, outs, wilcos, no joys, rogers, and with you the more amateurish it sounds in today's communications. Position is always said before altitude. "Feet" is never included in giving altitude. At 2000 feet can be shortened to at 2000 because "feet" is the only possible meaning. "Miles" are not given as part of a distance. Ten miles north should be said as ten north since no other meaning can be implied. "Over" is not given as part of a geographical position. Over Benicia should be said as Benicia, in an airplane you are obviously "over" a given reporting point.
Metathesis errors occur when your tongue can't keep up with your mind. Metathesis means that you have transposed or switched thing around. Very often metathesis will result in a 'spoonerism'. The best way to avoid metathesis problems is to practice aloud what you expect to say in its entirety.
Certain communications require special attention because of the frequency that misunderstanding or noncompliance occurs. "Hold short...", "Cancel...", "Amend..." are most likely to occur at times of reduced anticipation. The unexpected is least likely to be heard. It may not be possible to hear if simultaneous transmissions obliterate everything to a squeal. In early 1992, I and a competent pilot both missed repeated calls to cancel a takeoff. Neither of us heard anything over the radio until out of 500'. Tower tapes, however, recorded the several calls to cancel takeoff. It happens. It is only belatedly that "how" it happened can be figured out. The advent of "data link technology' is supposed to act as a preventative. (Refer to NASA contractor Report 166462.) Later found that volume control knob has less than 1/16th inch turn between hearing and not hearing.
Always listen to the frequency before speaking. Allow time
for response to a call before keying the mike. If two microphones
are keyed at the same time a whistle on the frequency occurs effectively
blocking everybody. Always have prepared what you are going to
say and say it with the most economy of words sufficient for clarity.
If ATC communicates to you but does not allow sufficient time
for your response or acknowledgment, don't. If, at any time, you
are unsure of what to do, do not understand an ATC clearance or
command, or do not have advised traffic, communicate. If ATC fails
to understand or has trouble understanding you, use different
terms and words to say the same thing.
If you are new to the airport or area let ATC know on your first
call up by using the word "UNfamiliar" with emphasis
on the 'UN'. There is a significant difference if what you say
includes, "...East Ramp taxi"...from "..taxi East
Ramp." If you know the controller is going to give you an
advisory or reporting point, include this information in your
call up. ATC will adjust their thinking and communications to
the situation once you have admitted your lack of familiarity.
If you don't know where you are or what the common checkpoints in use at the airport are, say so. Giving a distance and radial from a VOR is another way. The controller may have you over-fly so he can identify you and set up your arrival. You may request this option instead of having him make the decision for you.
If visibility is a factor, turn on your landing lights and fly so the light is visible from the tower. Include in your radio work that you are "showing a light" until you are identified. It is often difficult for ATC to determine your runway alignment for parallel runways. If another aircraft is in conflict relative to your position don't hesitate to give a progressive call as to your position and altitude. The orientation of your arrival in the early morning or late afternoon may determine whether your or ATC has the visibility advantage. When you are having difficulty seeing or locating let ATC know that you have a problem.
When you are given an advisory while arriving or departing an airport or you hear another aircraft report a location that may be in conflict with your route, don't wait or expect for ATC to tell you about it. They may or may not warn you. Immediately, advise ATC of your position, altitude, and whether you are level, climbing or descending. You are not really talking to ATC. You are advising the other pilot by an indirect communication. This is just one of the flying procedures that makes it possible for a pilot to become an old pilot.
There will be occasions when you do not have the frequency that is most appropriate for your situation. It is important that you know alternate means to acquire appropriate frequencies. This is especially important If you are a VFR pilot without ready access to IFR frequencies, know that any FSS will have access to a frequency that will get you in contact with a facility even if not on the correct frequency.
The student who has insufficient experience, study, or question asking is apt to be unfamiliar with many radio terms. If you should hear a term with which you are unfamiliar, say so. Use the term "other words' in a request such as, "Say again, other words." Words such as abeam, abort, acknowledge, advise, expedite, intentions, option, closed traffic, go ahead, unable and others need to be explained to and understood by the student as they apply to ATC and his operations. CALL 1-(800) USA-AOPA for copy of ABC's of Aviation of 78 confusing aviation terms.
The better a pilot is able to tell others about a situation the more likely the situation is not to become the lead in to an accident. Good talkers can overcome Problems where poor talkers let small mistakes create accidents. You can talk your way out of a pre-accident sequence. The use of resource management beyond the cockpit is a vital skill.
I can think back over numerous accidents that need not have happened had the pilot just been able to say the right thing and ask the right questions. Communications in a complex field like flying must be clear and unambiguous to make sure that all involved are working from the same page. Assertiveness is a required attribute ins asking questions, giving directions and seeking help.
Do not get personal. Leave the person you are addressing an opening to make an advisory suggestion. Look for options. You are responsible for getting all available information before taking action.
Years of experience have shown that pilots who are capable of competent communications when in difficulty are more likely to overcome adverse conditions and break the accident sequence. A part of communication is the making of an inquiry as a means for seeking information. Failing to seek information can and has led to the failure to take assertive action. Likewise, it is equally important that you communicate in a clear maner what is known or believed to be true. Resource management goes beyond the cockpit.
1. "I have a problem"
2. State the facts as they seem to be.
3. Suggest an alternative
4. "What would you do?"
Aircraft radio communications are subject to several kinds of commission and omission errors. A significant part of the problem comes from the overwhelming volume of radio traffic at specific 'rush hour' times. Add to this volume pilot/controller fatigue, inexperience, and distractions. If you ever fly into this situation, go in prepared to talk, listen, and readback. Ask for verification if you have any doubt in understanding, orientation, assignment, or traffic. Use standard communications terms and procedures. Do not rely on ATC to protect you.
Today's flying requires good radios and good radio procedures. Additionally, it helps to frost your radio work with good planning and patience. The constraints of the ATC communications system are being stretched more and more. It only takes one pilot who is incompetent to cause a breakdown. Interestingly, it is not the students under training who are most likely to cause a problem. A pilot under stress is very apt to mis-communicate or step on someone's words. The adrenaline of stress can change words to babble.
Even experienced pilots, myself included, rehearse what I am going to say, And the way I am going to say it. If the frequency is relatively clear I will include a request and my expectations. Otherwise, I keep it brief and concise. Knowing how to adjust to the system in your communications is a skill that the controllers can recognize and appreciate. The value of a given word is inversely proportional to the number of words spoken.
Common mistakes
--Beginning to talk before keying the microphone so first
word or so is missed. Talking with out listening for frequency
to
clear first.
--A transmission is lost due to interference from another transmission.
--Radio procedures, terminology, phraseology and enunciation
--Confusion due to similar call signs or being unfamiliar with
your call sign. Not picking up on the presence of a similar
aircraft call sign.
--Missed call sign so that acknowledgment or readback is not done.
--Controller failure to require acknowledgment or readback. Procedures,
readback, hearback
--Message not sent by equipment or individual. Solution by technology
--Receiver not monitoring due to frequency, volume, or distraction.
Monitor the frequency a while so you get some idea of
what to expect.
--Message intercepted by wrong receiver. No call sign given.
--Hearing what you expect to hear not what is said. Misinterpretation
due to having your mind spring-loaded for what you
expect to hear. Listen, analyze
--Incomplete transmission due to keying, interference, or equipment.
Most often pilot fails to compress information into
key words. Requires multiple contacts to complete message.
--Information such as numbers transposed. Accepting a remark regarding
traffic at an altitude as an altitude assignment.
The shear number of numbers given over the radio is but a prelude
to human mistakes. Letters can be confused.
B,C, D, E, G, P, T, V, Z. Pairs of letters subject to confusion
are IY, FS, MN, A, J, K. You hear what you expect
to hear.
--Non-standard terminology.
--Communication too early/late. Delay request for assistance or
declaring emergency until it is too late for ATC to help
you.
--English a second-language
--Contextual specific terms (unfamiliar visual checkpoints)
--Jargon or acronyms specific to area or aircraft.
--Giving excess information before establishing contact with a
radar facility or FSS. Most common when you just want
information and proceed to make a long story out of it. In such
situations just give your identification followed by
"request".
--When getting handoff failing to give altitude reference as,
climbing, descending, level.
--Not saying 10,000' as "one zero, ten thousand" and
11,000' as "one one, eleven thousand"
--Failing to advise ATC of flight conditions and fuel remaining.
--ATC does not want a readback of information or 'expect' statements.
Stick to the essentials.
--Time is the only commodity that ATC has. They will waste enough
time for everybody. They don't need any help from
you.
--Don't abrogate your responsibility for the safety of your flying
by talking.
All too often you will hear another aircraft or have one pointed
out that you can't find but is in apparent conflict with your
flight path. It is time be assertive on the radio. Make a call
giving your position and altitude to warn both ATC and the other
pilot. Be aware, that many pilots report their position as what
they can see over the nose and not what is below.
Prior to Taxi
--Listen for clearances given to other aircraft
--Write and draw the ATIS wind direction and velocity
--Determine 'your' crosswind capability
--Read back your taxi clearance entirely
--Seek confirmation of any doubts you may have.
--Don't hesitate to ask for longer or different runway
--Wait for any possible wake turbulence to clear
Departure
--Listen to information related to departing and arriving
aircraft.
--Make your departure request so that other aircraft know where
to look for you.
--Turn to clear both the final approach and base legs.
--Use your pretakeoff list; Flaps, Fuel, Pump, Prop, Mixture,
Transponder, Time (FFPPMTT)
--Don't waste runway behind you.
--Know the local ordinances regarding turns and noise abatement.
--Cruise climb above 100' for cooling.
--Know your options in case of engine problems.
--Make clearing maneuvers while climbing
--Don’t forget to open your flight plan.
Enroute
--Monitor nearby frequencies especially of nearby airports.
--Monitor Flight Watch 122.0 for enroute weather
--1000-foot clean up
--Know the proper way to get into the enroute system.
--Get traffic advisories
--Know what to say to get flight advisories in the radar system.
--Fly airport vicinity routes
--Make PIREPS
--Know the proper way to repeat back a radar handoff.
--Know the proper way to report a handoff
--Know the proper way to respond to an advisory
--Know the proper way to get a two-minute frequency change
--Know how and when to get out of the system.
--Don’t accept a vector that turns you into weather.
Descent
--Monitor local radio frequences
--Keep your engine warm.
--Don't forget to close your flight plan
--Get the ATIS early and plan your call-up point and arrival.
--Use your call-up to include your position, altitude, request
and intentions
--Enter the traffic pattern slightly high and wide.
--Don't accept a runway that you see as a problem.
--Readback all runway and hold short assignments
Landing
--Don't leave the runway by turning on another runway until
cleared to do so.
--Taxi past the holdbars before stopping and cleaning up the aircraft.
--Read back all tower instructions while on the ground
--Don't leave tower frequency until told to do so.
--Read back all ground instructions while on the ground
--Stay on the yellow lines.
--Listen on ground for inbound and outbound traffic
Emergency
location at work
You should know that the General Aviation ELT technology is
such that it will be hours before the ELT will actually activate
a search. Average time is two hours before search begins. Up to
50 hours before search begins is not unusual. Having a cellular
phone is a better option. /Call /afrcc 800/851-3051 for starting
an immediate search. ELT's are destroyed or fail to operate 75%
of the time. Accident activation rate is only 12% with a 97% false
alarm rate. There are 30,000 ELT activations a year. 835
Using
the FSS
1. Have a flight plan form
2. Give your flight specifics to specialist using form sequence
3. Use airways and intersections known to the system
4. Make an FSS visit that will help you understand the process
5. Use correct radio procedures:
Callup: "Oakland radio Cessna 1234X listening 122.35",
wait 30 + seconds before repeating callup
Body: Aircraft type, position, altitude, and requested information
6. Use AIM 5-1-1 and 7-1-3 for how to get briefing
7. Use Flight Watch on 122.0
Callup: "Oakland Flight Watch Cessna 1234X' Williams VOR"
The nationwide frequency is the same.
Always give your location as the closest VOR. This will allow
the specialist to select the proper radio to
use for your area.
8. It is wise to be familiar with the DF procedure even though
radar has mostly displaced its use.
9. Use and VFR flight plan and know how it works, how to make
changes, and how and when to close it.
A bit
of terminology:
RCOs, Remote Communications Outlets, are used by FSSs, not by
ATC.
RCAGs, Remote Communications Air/Ground Facilities, are used by
ARTCCs.
RTRs, Remote/Transmitter/Receivers, are used by Terminal ATC facilities.
Stuck
Mike Switch
Every so often an aircraft gets a stuck microphone switch.
It is difficult to know when this has happened to you. The warning
clue is when you do not get a response to your calls or when there
is no communication over the frequency. When this occurs it blocks
the entire frequency. The stuck mike switch causes a problem that
annoys the rest of the airwave world but not the pilot. The pilot
has no way of knowing that he has a problem that is creating a
problem for everyone else. Maintain a listing watch. If you don't
hear voices where voices should exist start suspecting that you
are the problem. You cannot hear anyone when your mike is stuck.
First check the squelch to see if it hisses. Pulling the volume
knob in many radios overrides the automatic squelch. Unplug all
your mike connections and try the hand held radio or the hand
mike. If you happen to fly into a situation where a stuck mike,
not yours, is blocking the frequency you will hear a loud whistle.
The usual thing to do is to go back to the last frequency used
and advise them of the situation and your intentions. A preferred
approach might to be going to the next frequency that you expect
to use and advise them of the situation and your intentions. In
some circumstances, such as airport arrival, this latter method
seems better.
Emergency
Communications
Climb
For improved transmission/reception, radar coverage and possible
Directional Finding (nearly obsolete) even a couple of
hundred feet more altitude can make a significant difference.
Squawk an appropriate code such as 7700 if an aircraft
emergency exists, 7600 if total or partial radio failure occurs.
Communicate
Remain on your present contact frequency. Otherwise, go to
121.5 and communicate as must of the following as
appropriate.
--Emergency say, "Mayday, mayday, mayday"
--An urgency say, "Pan-Pan, Pan-Pan, Pan-pan
--Name of station or "Any station receiving"
--Aircraft type and identification
Confess
--Nature of distress or urgency
--Weather
--Intentions and request
--Position, heading, last known position, time and heading since
that position
--Altitude
--Weather conditions
--Fuel condition in hours and minutes
--Number of people aboard
--Any pertinent information
Comply
--Obey ATC
--Ask questions
--Avoid FAR violations if possible
--Violate FARs only after declaring an emergency
Avionics
Capability
--Manufacturer makes a difference; some are better than others.
--Installation makes a difference check references
--Maintenance very much depends on the comprehensiveness of the
pilot's information and description
--Operation depends on proper voltages, shut down procedures,
use of controls, air filters and use of switches.
--Preflight of antennae for security and cleanliness
Cockpit
Radio
--A weak battery will cause radio problems.
--Advise avionics shop if any other aircraft maintenance has occurred
recently.
--Know how avionics is supposed to work so you can detect problems.
--Pre-set all avionics knobs as part of your preflight. Special
attention to volumes and idents
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