Contents:
Use a tape recorder; ...Aircraft
Radios; ...The Radio; ...The
Radio; ...Emergency Locator Transmitter;
...ELT Update;
...Automatic Direction Finder; ...RADAR;
...The Transponder; ...How
the Numbers Work; ...Radar Separation;
...Radar Identification; ...Data
Block; ...Transmitter Failure on Radar;
...Stuck Mike switch;
If you use a tape recorder on your flights, you must be sure that your patch cord has the proper impedance. A Radio Shack cord with gray or black connectors will work with a 9-volt portable system. An aircraft hard-wired system operates on 12 or 24 volts and must have a 1-meg resistor installed to prevent overdriving the input to the recorder. The use of a tape recorder is the best way I know to improve learning retention.
The FCC has permanently abolished radio station licensing requirements and fees for U.S. Aircraft.
Navaids Available in the US as of 1997
VORs 1027
ILSs 1197
VASIs 1308
Aircraft frequencies are the same worldwide. Non-military aircraft use Very High Frequencies (VHF); the military uses Ultra High frequencies (UHF).
Frequencies:
ADF 190-535 (1605) kHz (Kilohertz) thousands of cycles per sec.
VOR/LOC 108.0-117.95
VHF COM 117.95-136.0
Glideslope 328.6-335.4
XPONDER 1030-1090
DME 960-1215 (1605)
RADAR 5350-15700
The antenna for a given frequency is 1/4 the frequency length. This length can be electronically as well as physically determined. This allows best radio performance. Antennas have a size determined by the frequency. The higher the frequency the shorter the antenna. A com radio has a wavelength close to two meters and the antenna is close to 1/4 that length. Loran C has an antenna similar to a com antenna. The ELT antenna is slightly more than a foot long. The VOR antenna is V-shaped. A combination VOR antenna and glideslope. The glideslope antenna is often inside the cockpit close to the top of the windshield.
Marker beacon antenna is on the bottom of the aircraft. The
antenna is about three feet long and attached at two points. Later
models are canoe shaped fiber glass fittings about eight inches
long. GPS are teacup saucer
sized rectangles or ovals on top of the plane.
As often as not the antenna is at fault when radios work poorly.
Vibration and dirt affect both transmission and reception efficiency.
Any cracks in the metal or plastic of an antenna housing will
open the door to corrosion.
During preflight look for cracks and corrosion.
The frequency of a radio is the number you use to determine the number of cycles per second your radio can both transmit and receive. A combination of crystals inside the radio make a large combination of selected frequencies possible. Most modern radios have 720 different frequencies. If you should need to use a 25-kHz frequency on your 720 channel radio, it is nice to know that any final digit readout that ends in 2 or 7 is followed by a 5 even though it does not show. Some radios have switches for this feature but if no switch exists just remember than 123.72 is really 123.725
Varying the compression of the basic frequency transmits the aircraft radio's vocal changes (modulation). Frequency modulation (FM) is not as subject to electrical disturbances as is the more common commercial amplitude modulation (AM).
The aircraft hand microphone is noise canceling. This means that positioned properly the propeller/engine/wind noise will be mostly eliminated. Proper positioning means that the mike is held close to the mouth. A normal speaking voice should be used. If the mike is held sideways by the casual communicator, a hiss or whistle can occur to the listener. Holding the microphone too far away allows aircraft noise to enter along with the voice.
The Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) is a 1970 congressional imposed device, which because of technical deficiencies has been unable to perform adequately. ELTs are activated by impact but include hand activation. In 1991 only 61 out of 2037 transmissions were legitimate. All others were false alarms. 97% of past ELT signals have been false alarms. In 75% of the accidents where an ELT transmission was required the ELT failed to operate. In 1992 the time between "last known position" and location of accident by ELT averages 17 hours. If a VFR flight plan is filed the search time is decreased by 48 hours and 63 hours for an IFR plan.
You should know that the General Aviation ELT technology is such that it will be hours before the ELT will actually activate a search. Average time is two hours before search begins. Up to 50 hours before search begins is not unusual. Having a cellular phone is a better option. /Call /afrcc 800/851-3051 for starting an immediate search. ELT's are destroyed or fail to operate 75% of the time. Accident activation rate is only 12% with a 97% false alarm rate. There are 30,000 ELT activations a year.
The satellites in space, both Russian and American, require two passes over two hours apart to confirm and locate a signal source. Search and rescue satellites (Sarsats) interprets any 121.5 broadcast of over 30 seconds as an emergency. ELT location can take from 45 seconds to three hours. ATC facilities are "supposed" to monitor 121.5 but often have the volume too low to hear. Present doppler system accuracy + 20 miles. A GPS type used for ten years is under development fore civil use.
U. S. has SAR (Search and Rescue) centers at Langly, Virginia and Elmendorf, Alaska. Search begins with 'phone search' contacting local authorities to eliminate a false alarm. Civil Air Patrol, COAST GUARD, local authorities conduct actual search. 24 other countries have terminals used for reception of signals.
The ELT must be replaced as placarded on it by date of 1/2 battery life followed by A&Ps signature. It must have aircraft logbook entries as to date of installation and A&Ps signature. Since 6-21-94 ELT inspection required annually as part of annual inspection. It must be replace if activated for one hour. Data, dates and location required information for PTS. (flight test). Pilot's test of ELT is limited to three audio sweeps during the first five minutes of any hour.
The aircraft shutdown checklist includes putting 121.5 on the com radio prior to turning it off. This ten seconds is used to save the time and money that would be wasted if an Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) false alarm is pursued by the U. S. Air Force Rescue Coordination Center (AFRCC) now located on the East coast.
Only second generation ELTs (TSO-C91a) can be installed after
6-21-95
Battery expiration dates on ELT and maintenance record
New inertia switch will not activate on hard landings.
Can interface with Loran and GPS
Next generation is:
Emergency Position Indicator Radio Beacons (EPIRB's)
Personal Locator Beacon (PLB's) 406.025 MHz ELT's
Cost is $2,800
System can receive and download information such as position and
identification in one satellite pass.
ELTs in storage must have battery removed.
If you are planning an over water flight consider buying or renting an EPIRB type ELT which can be manually or water contact activated. The 406 ELT transmits a complete identification database for the aircraft and owner. The 406 also has a night strobe for low visibility searches. All of this will be antiquated if the potential of the GPS/Datalink is allowed on the civilian market.
The ADF was the second electronic navigational aid used in aviation. Rotating light towers came first. Fifty years ago Bill Lear (Lear jet) perfected the ADF. The technology is complicated and cost is high. An ADF takes two parts of an AM radio signal through a sense and loop antenna. Comparison of the signals through an electronic Wheatstone Bridge enables a needle to be turned to a bearing to a station. Unlike turning a portable radio for the 'null' the expensive part of the ADF is making it show "to" the station automatically. The ADF has several frequency channels and selector switch positions, which determine what is received and whether the ADF needle is operative. Commercial broadcast stations, non-directional beacons and compass locators can be used by the ADF.
Radio detection and ranging was first developed in WWII. The antenna used was a Yagi; a Japanese invention still used for TV. As a primary system it was relatively inaccurate for distance and altitudes could only be guessed at. A primary target showed as a blurry spot on a screen. Shortly after WWII the French developed a way to remove unwanted targets such as freeway traffic. The British had made a magnetron transmitter tube, just like the one in your microwave.
In much of the U.S. your transponder may be targeted by more than one Center radar antenna. However, your aircraft does not appear as multiple targets. You appear as a computer derived approximation called a mosaic. You are given a circular error of 1/16 of a mile. Thus, the 5-mile airway aircraft separation required by ATC operations orders. Terminal radar is used for Airport Surveillance approaches (ASR) because it is usually located close to the terminal airport.
+ a bit of history
During WWII the British developed a top-secret 10" x 10"
x 10" radar transceiver. It would respond to a radar-
interrogating signal by responding with a coded transmission.
A code would allow the land based radar station to distinguish
British from German aircraft on their radar screen. The radio
also contained an internal thermite bomb which, when triggered
by an inertial switch (crash), would destroy the interior of the
set. This was supposed to prevent German discovery of the codes.
(A reverse ELT?) The British code-named the system Parrot. The
United States Army Air Forces version of the system was called
IFF, for Identification Friend or Foe.
As with many WWII developments, the IFF system was designed
to prevent
a clever German ruse. The Germans were following the night bombers
back to England. German aircraft would join in the stream of returning
British bombers. They would wait until the bombers were most vulnerable,
just prior to landing, and then shoot them down. Parrot allowed
detection of these German aircraft since their (primary) return
would not have a distinctive code. Only 10 codes were available
and they were changed daily.
When radar became available for civil use the size and power
of radar antennae could pick up most aircraft but only 10 codes
had to be expanded to 64 codes. Within a brief period it was expanded
to 4096 codes because the number of aircraft in flight required
a large number of discrete codes for different type operations.
Ground radar transmits on two frequencies one is for powerful
detection the other is a trigger at a high frequency of 1030 MHz.
This trigger causes the transponder to respond on a frequency
of 1090 MHz with a coded reply that can be tailored to the aircraft.
Ground radar will interrogate an aircraft for a few microseconds
by use of a radar beam and then pause for several hundred micro-seconds.
If an aircraft is transponder equipped, transponder will reply
in a Base 8 code which will serve to identify a variety of items.
1200 identifies a VFR flight. Altitude encoders give altitude.
Discrete codes show IFR/VFR flight and/or destination as well
as being in radar contact/communication.
Presently, if an aircraft is not squawking VFR of 1200 it will
have such a discrete code. A VFR flight out of CCR contacting
Travis Approach will have a code beginning with 52--. It is possible
that you will be given a single code that will go with you from
CCR to RNO or FAT. Airliners have single codes that take them
across the country. New computer technology now lets ATC have
instant access to all aircraft in the U.S. that are on flight
plans. All United Airline aircraft can be displayed on a screen
and the individual flight identified as to aircraft, flight number,
altitude, departure, destination, and speed. This information
is available on all flight-planned aircraft.
To control the operation of the airborne set to the best advantage, the ground based radar station would radio instructions regarding the operation of "Parrot". The aircraft would be directed to "squawk your parrot", meaning to turn on the set for identification; or to "strangle (not kill) your parrot" as a directive for turning the set to standby.
The only vestige of this that remains today, other than the entire ATC system itself, is the term "Squawk", as an ATC directive for operation or code for the transponder. Old time ATC controllers may still have you "strangle" your parrot (x-ponder) if it is not working properly.
Today the transponder usually has a four position switch-- off, stby (standby), on (Mode A), and alt (altitude Mode C), a test button, and ident (identification) button, a response light, and four selector switches with numbers from 0 to 7. Certain aircraft letters and numbers cannot be reproduced but frequently the discrete code can be seen to represent a specific aircraft due to their similarity. A transponder is not legal for use unless it has been tested and inspected within the past 24 calendar months and found to be in compliance with ability to squawk a code and an altitude within + 150' accuracy.
All transponders operate on 1090 MHz. For Mode A the transponder gives back only the four digit code. For Mode C includes the altitude. This is done 600 times a second but only 20-30 responses occur during the radar beam passage. If two radar interrogations occur nearly simultaneously the transponder response may become garbled at the radar site. This often leads ATC to claim that your transponder isn't working properly. Your recycling the transponder is a way of changing the response sequence. If one radar location has had no difficulty with your transponder refer the problem site to them. Often different locations are using widely age different systems. Ask that the radar tapes be saved so that the FAA may make an analysis of the problem.
All codes are discreet and assigned by ATC to give other controllers information regarding your type of flight and destination. Operations such as VFR without advisory, VFR with advisory, IFR, destination, specific airport operation, TCA, ARSA, Local IFR, Tower enroute IFR, X-country IFR, emergency, hijack, and radio failure all have differing first two digit codes which tell ATC controllers about your flight and destination. An improved Mode S system is under development which will allow selective interrogation.
An airplane may be without an altitude encoder and operate only on MODE A or ON. Under Mode A, ATC will expect you to maintain either an assigned or agreed upon altitude and to report changes. Flight with Mode A is somewhat restricted. If you know that your transponder does not have Mode C capability, be sure to advise ATC. Know the following restrictions.
Aircraft above 10,000 feet are required to have an operative transponder with Mode C. Aircraft in Class C airspace or above the outer perimeter of the Class C airspace up to 10,000' are required to have a transponder Mode C. Any flight above the Sacramento Class C comes under this last requirement. Any aircraft in a Class B or operating within 30 nautical miles of the Class B primary airport is required to have an encoding transponder. Exceptions are made for aircraft without electrical systems and high mountain flights within 2500' of the surface. The transponder and encoder system must be inspected every 24 months. It is illegal not to use your transponder, while flying, to its highest capacity.
An aircraft without an operating transponder shows, if at all, as a primary target. All transponder targets are called secondary. Under MODE C, or ALT, your aircraft will have an encoder which tells ATC your altitude. ATC will always need to know if your altitude encoder is operating correctly. This altitude encoder is crosschecked by ATC with your altimeter setting via radio. They will remind you of the current altimeter setting and perhaps ask you to switch to MODE A if your encoder is off by more than 300'. An error of 300' makes the transponder unsafe to use for traffic avoidance purposes.
If you should experience a transponder failure, be cautious about accepting flight into a radar environment where radar is the prime system. Once you land at a Class C airport without a transponder you may be unable to get out. Trick: Try to get piggybacked on to another aircraft as a flight of two. Nice if you can get out in the direction you want to go. Radar can track a primary signal with little difficulty today. They can even attach a data block. Planed flights into Class C or even B require one-hour notice.
Any MODE C traffic that has not been crosschecked will be given to you as UNCONFIRMED altitude. For this reason you should always include your altitude in the information to ATC. Advise if you are level, climbing, descending and final altitude. When you have not been assigned an altitude, be sure to advise ATC when you plan to make changes of an established altitude.
On the ground the transponder should be set to standby. This stops the squawk but allows the transponder to stay warm and ready for operation when needed. The start takeoff, emergency, and post-landing checklist should have transponder as a checklist item. Whenever changing codes on the transponder recommendation is that 'standby' be selected during the change since it prevents inadvertent discrete codes being sent to ATC. The transponder should be turned on as you taxi onto the runway for takeoff. Use of MODE C is now required in many cases as noted in a prior paragraph.
There are 4096 possible code selections on a transponder from 0000 to 7777. This is a Base 8 number system, which is used by computers as a short method of storing Base 2. Base 2 is the number system of computers. The four places of the transponder from right to left are 1's, 8's, 64's, and 512"s. We know it is a base 8 because the highest digit is 7. The eight possible digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Counting in Base 8 proceeds as follows:
Base 10
Place Values 512 64 8 l equivalent
0 0 0 0 = 0 This is the 'presidential' code.
0 0 0 1 = 1 (1 one)
Set as transponder to
code numbers. 0 0 0 7 = 7 (7 ones)
0 0 1 0 = 8 (1 eight, no ones)
0 0 1 1 = 9 (1 eight and one one)
to
0 0 7 7 = 63 (7 eights, 7 ones)
0 1 0 0 = 64 (1 sixty-four, no eights, no ones)
0 1 0 1 = 65 (1 sixty-four, no eights, one one)
to
0 7 7 7 = 7 sixty-fours, 7 eights, and 7 ones)
448 + 56 + 7 ones = 511
to
7 7 7 7 = 4095
4095 added to 0000 makes the possible 4096 transponder codes.
More than you ever wanted to know?
Emergency 7 7 0 0 = 4032 in base 10
Nordo 7 6 0 0 = 3968
Hijack 7 5 0 0 = 3904
VFR 1 2 0 0 = 640
Terminal Area (TRACON)
Basic separation within 40 miles of single antenna is three miles
in airport/terminal airspace. IFR/VFR separation is 1.5> miles
in Class B. Beyond 40 miles of antenna it is 5 miles.
Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)
5 miles is the minimum for IFR. Several antenna returns are displayed
as one.
The pilot should know that under VFR conditions once you have told ATC that you have visual contact with traffic you may not receive any further radar advisories on that traffic. They may not advise you again of altitude or direction. It is up to you to evade any possible wake turbulence. ATC will let you fly right under a DC-10' wake turbulence and not issue a warning. You must be aware of this lack of protection and be assertive enough to make a 360 or whatever it takes for avoidance.
Radar Identification
1. Contact and identity established by 1-mile or runway is
'contact".
2. Radar return at specific reported position is 'contact'.
3. Radar vectors may be used to identify and establish 'contact'
4. Transponder codes are used. Mode C gives altitude that must
be validated by each successive controller.
The computerized radar is capable of showing the aircraft route, a conflict with another aircraft, range and bearing from any fix, and a minimum safe altitude warning. The code given tells the type of flight and destination. lI was recently given a code at Concord that I used all the way to Santa Ana in Southern Califonria..
Infrequently a radio microphone or transmitter will fail when in radar contact. The controller can by a carefully selected series of questions determine what you plan to do. You will be asked to IDENT or not in response to the questions. The transponder can work effectively on low power long after radios and transmitters fail. Taped records are kept of radar pictures and this can be used to locate downed aircraft.
Every so often an aircraft gets a stuck microphone switch. It is difficult to know when this has happened to you. The warning clue is when you do not get a response to your calls or when there is no communication over the frequency. When this occurs it blocks the entire frequency. The stuck mike switch causes a problem that annoys the rest of the airwave world but not the pilot. The pilot has no way of knowing that he has a problem that is creating a problem for everyone else. Maintain a listing watch. If you don't hear voices where voices should exist start suspecting that you are the problem. You cannot hear anyone when your mike is stuck.
First check the squelch to see if it hisses. Pulling the volume knob in many radios overrides the automatic squelch. Unplug all your mike connections and try the hand held radio or the hand mike.
If you happen to fly into a situation where a stuck mike, not
yours, is blocking the frequency you will hear a loud whistle.
The usual thing to do is to go back to the last frequency used
and advise them of the situation and your intentions. A preferred
approach might to be going to the next frequency that you expect
to use and advise them of the situation and your intentions. In
some circumstances, such as airport arrival, this latter method
seems better.
Contents:
Intercoms and Headsets; ...Beginning
Basic Radio; ...Radio Preparation;
...This Pilot Is Assertive;... Talking
Airplane;
...Knowing when to say what and
how to say it; ...Radio Instruction;
...The Call-up; ...Types
of pilots on the radio;
...Don't answer if it's the wrong number;
...Precision Radio; The
Safety of Radio Flight Operations; ...Notice;
...Communication Problems; Communicating
Problems; ...When Asking for Help;
...Communication Faults;
Common Mistakes; ...Radio
and Traffic Awareness; ...Emergency Location
at Work;
Considering that the interior of a general aviation aircraft at cruise has a noise level at 90dB or equivalent of being within 15' of a heavy-rock band speaker, you should do all that you can to protect your hearing. Noise at this level will damage unprotected hearing. Damage is proportional to the duration and intensity of the noise. Once lost hearing can never be regained by you can protect what is left by using good intercoms and headsets. Hearing is irreplaceable.
When you can't hear'em, you really can't hear'em. In conversation we can lip-read the differences but over a microphone the higher frequencies between 3000 and 6000-hertz are chopped off at about 4000 hertz. Hearing difficulties you may be having may be an equipment problem as well as a biological one. Volume alone will not improve hearing or comprehension. Where there is a conflict of sounds and noises we fail to hear consonants first. The use of a noise-attenuating headset reduces the conflicting sounds. Different headsets are better at different frequencies. Try them out in an aircraft before buying.
Letters 'f' and 's' are most difficult to distinguish. Certain numbers such as seven, zero and six begin with a consonant sound that a person with a high frequency loss may not decipher. Two and three give difficulty, also. If you have subjected your ears to loud sounds such as gun shots, rock music or engine noise you may have temporary threshold shift. Over extended periods such sounds damage the cochlea cilia and cause permanent threshold slips. Once destroyed, the cilia never work again. While some hearing loss is normal with age given reasonable protection good hearing will last a lifetime.
A common pilot fault is completely failing to hear ATC. This is usually caused by over-absorption with the airplane. The post-landing trauma seems to occur at the same time the tower is giving you taxi directions and frequency changes. Usually you will be told to cross an active runway before changing to ground frequency or to hold short and then contact ground. Traffic advisories and sequencing seems to be unheard quite often. Acknowledge communications where you know they are directed to you and ask about any communications where you are uncertain.
A miscommunication either in saying or hearing may be minor
or very serious. An ATC facility may record over 100 errors per
day. The number one avoidable safety problem on a day-to-day basis
is poor radio technique by pilots. A single radio call that should
take five seconds will take a minute and three exchanges. An erroneous
position report is potentially more dangerous than no report.
Many student pilots believe that by tuning and listening to aircraft
radio communications that they will be able to improve their skills.
I only wish that this were so. On any given frequency you will
hear all levels of competence and incompetence. You are better
off not to listen until your own skills have reached a level to
where you can distinguish the good, bad and ugly.
If you use a tape recorder on your flights, you must be sure that
your patch cord has the proper impedance. A Radio Shack cord with
gray or black connectors will work with a 9-volt portable system.
An aircraft hard-wired system operates on 12 or 24 volts and must
have a 1-meg resistor installed to prevent overdriving the input
to the recorder. The use of a tape recorder is the best way I
know to improve learning retention. When you change what you read
and hear into your own words it becomes a part of you.
Not every shop is capable of repairing the equipment. Often only factory repair is feasible. Radios are usually built to a technical standard order (TSO) and only repairs to that level meet FAR requirements.
Talking effective airplane requires the ability to express thoughts using a very specialized vocabulary designed for brevity using a convoluted syntax which emphasizes clarity while requiring assumptions with the expectation that complete and accurate information is being given and understood. Talking airplane means that instead of writing shorthand we are talking it. Not all pilots are equally proficient in talking airplane. Over the years some terminology has been dropped or changed. The incorrect use of a term when used in talking shorthand will completely change the meaning. Still, the best advice for a beginner is, "Do not be afraid to use the wrong words." so much of ATC procedures is 'canned' that it gets easier the longer you use it.
The use of non-standard phraseology, antiquated vocabulary, and politeness can inhibit the verbal and mental exchanges required in flying. The vocabulary of modern aviation gives very special meanings to uncommon words and uncommon meanings to special words. 'Clearance' or 'cleared' is the most common example of this.
As any married person should know, you cannot assume that what you said was understood or even heard on the other side. Important to you may not be equally important to the listener. When talking airplane we must communicate both meaning and importance. As in marriage, the failure to communicate in flying is most often just a minor irritant. But not always. When safety is compromised by the failure of communication, hazards are created for all concerned. You can hear ATC better when you know what to expect. Key words for a failure to hear are, "Say again".
The words, the sequence they are in, and even the way they are said can make critical differences in safety. Good communication promotes cooperation. Time critical information must be exchanged, understood, acknowledged, and appropriately acted upon. Delay in any phase of the exchange, understanding, acknowledgment, or action contains an inherent hazard.
There is a moral quality involved in good communications. You must accept that the most likely problem lies under your control. As often as not the volume control. Plan your communications so that your patience will not be tried. Don't wait until the last moment to get through. Allow for the inexperience and skill shortages of others. Hope that other pilots will be as prudent toward you shortcomings.
If you are at all unfamiliar with what to say, say your location, or any other aspect of what to say on the radio, orally rehearse the entire communication process or better yet write it out word for word prior to flight. Over 50% of learning to fly will involve becoming radio capable.
A pilot must have his priorities in order. Getting them in order will vary in difficulty according to background but the sequence of order is indisputable. Talking should never interfere with keeping the airplane in the air, on course and avoiding impact.
Learning how to activate, tune and set radios is the first basic. The more you can reduce the process to fundamental steps and sequence the better. Next comes knowing when to talk. Don't be in such a hurry that you will have things to do when ATC responds. Get everything done ahead of time before practicing your communications. Know when to talk by preparing ahead of time, before you even get into the plane. Practice with the mike to your lips.
There are some general principles to aircraft communications with slight variations between ATC agencies. FSS, radar, ground and towers have slightly different procedures and requirements within the general principles. Always tell an FSS the frequency you are using and the name of the nearest VOR on initial contact. Initial contact with a radar facility will give only your aircraft identification. This will be followed after ATC acknowledgment with location, altitude, and intentions. Tower initial contact contains identification, position, altitude, and intentions or request. Altitude is a part of this to serve, along with position, as a protection from other aircraft.
Who you are talking to
Concord Ground, Napa Tower, Travis approach, Oakland Radio, Rio
Vista Unicom, Byron Traffic
Who you are
Manufacture/Type of aircraft, full call sign except for N (November)on
initial call-up
Student solo add "student pilot" when giving full call
sign on initial call-up
Subsequent calls use last 3 elements only
Where you are
East ramp, clear of 32L, between runways, Benicia at 2000, 10
south at 3000
What you want
Taxi with Alpha, landing with Bravo, fly through your airspace
at 2000, right crosswind, straight-out, on course...
Request traffic advisories, over (used to approach/departure)
The best way to avoid radio surprises is to pre-compose what you are going to say for each separate situation as it occurs on a flight.
Taxi Call:
Get the ATIS.
Call GROUND give your identification, position, ATIS name, and
any request. If you have understood the ATIS and other aircraft
communications you should be aware of what the runway instructions
will be as well as any warnings about inbound or outbound traffic.
When given a runway assignment you must acknowledge by repeating
back the
runway assignment.
Takeoff Call:
Call TOWER, give your identification, position, and a pre-planned
departure request to a specific location. If you have been listening
to aircraft communications you can anticipate which aircraft poise
a conflict and anticipate ATC warnings by including as part of
your call that you are looking for traffic...(kind and where)
Departures, other than a standard 45-degree, must be requested. A straight-out, crosswind, downwind, or 270 will get you going in a general direction. A general direction will not allow ATC to give a traffic warning advisory nearly as well as a specific destination.
The assumption is that both you and ATC are aware of which way your destination may be and that inbound or outbound traffic knows the area well enough to tell if a traffic conflict is going to occur. The way you use the radio will protect you. The way you are able to interpret the radio calls of other aircraft provides even further protection.
Arrival Call:
Get the ATIS. Based on the ATIS, plan your arrival as to reporting
point, descent angle, and pattern entry. Practice your call before
you arrive at a reporting point. Just as listening to other aircraft
prior to and during takeoff will serve to warn you of other aircraft,
so will listening for potential traffic conflicts prior to and
after your call-up for landing serve to protect you.
Take a deep breath and very smoothly, without punctuation pauses, call the TOWER. Give your identification, position, altitude, and ATIS name. State your arrival intentions or request along with the report that is standard for that arrival. A 45-degree arrival to downwind does not need to be requested. You report turning downwind. A straight-in or base entry must be requested and reports are normally made two miles out.
The best call-up begins by giving ATC's identity, your N-number, a statement of your situation (position and altitude or problem, a statement of what you would like to do. The assertive pilot is always learning about the mistakes of others. The more you know of how another pilot screwed up, the less likely you are to let it happen to you. The highest level of learning is based on the mistakes of others.
A pilot is not a passive bystander; he is and is expected to be an active participant in what is happening. To be an active participant the pilot must know what is going on both in his aircraft and in the space around his aircraft. For many the mantle of command that comes with being a pilot requires a personality adjustment. The pilot is expected to demonstrate a level of communication and self-confidence related to his knowledge of the situation. No pilot should let ATC intimidate him into doing that which he considers unsafe or beyond his competence.
A pilot needs to actively listen to all the words coming over the radio, not just those transmissions directed to his aircraft. Be prepared to "assert' yourself to the level required if a situation arises. Being non-standard is likely to use up twice as much time to say half as much, and you will probably need to repeat all or part of it back if the controller can't rearrange what you say to fit his brain or computer.
Many student pilots put themselves into flight situations where the perceived ATC, the feared ATC, and accepted voice of authority takes command of the aircraft. The same thing happens when the more experienced pilot has failed to absorb the new communications knowledge needed to stay proficient and assertive in 1994 airspace. The pilot needs to know how and when to challenge an ATC clearance when a suggestive level of communication will make things better. Let ATC know if you think a particular situation will be unsafe. Practice and experience can make it a better flying world for the pilot.
This means that you should know what is right and be prepared to support your sense of rightness. This is usually and properly done on the radio. If you think you are right you must be prepared to state your position in a positive, confident and persistent manner. This communication is different from speech tones and words, which imply hostility.
The pilot is expected to use a level of communication and self-confidence related to his knowledge of the situation. A pilot needs to actively listen to all the words coming over the radio, not just those transmissions directed to his aircraft. Being non-standard is likely to use up twice as much time to say half as much.
Six communication steps as level of assertivenss
1. Passive........................ ATC tells you what to do
2. Informational............... ATC says "Approved as requested."
3. Offering alternatives ....You or ATC offers another choice
4. Being critical............... You say your way is better
5. Expressed opposition.. You don't want to do it ATC's way
6. Open conflict............. You won't do it ATC's way. Declare
an emergency
The poorly prepared student or pilot, is all to often, willing
to let ATC dominate. ATC can and will make mistakes. The passive
pilot acceptance of ATC clearances means that he is just going
for the ride. The lowest level of radio proficiency is where the
pilot expects to do what ATC says. ATC takes command of the aircraft.
The pilot needs to know how and when to challenge an ATC clearance
and when a suggestive level of communication will make things
better. This means that you should know what is right and be ready
to support your sense of rightness. This is usually and properly
done on the radio staying inside the boundaries of #2 and #3.
ATC has ways to handle those pilots who resort to #4, #5, and
#6.
The best, in my opinion, pilot level of communication with ATC
begins by giving ATC's identity, your identification, and a statement
of your situation (position and altitude or problem, a statement
of what you would like to do and finally obtain ATC clearance.
If no clearance is obtained you can now turn it up a notch by
going into the extreme politeness mode. This fourth level contains
implied criticism and should be avoided unless your sense of righteousness
is prepared for the next level of confrontation.
Do not anticipate that the levels of assertiveness is a guarantee
that nothing will go wrong. The assertive pilot is always learning
about the mistakes of others. The more you know of how another
pilot screwed up, the less likely you are to let it happen to
you. The highest level of learning is based on the mistakes of
others.
Air Traffic Control has a standardized way of saying things.
You are also expected to standardized your radio procedures to
conform to the ATC form. However, certain airports do have slightly
different procedures used to conform to local conditions. There
are a variety of ways to say something on the radio but there
is only one best way. The more acquainted you become with the
standard procedures the better you can anticipate ATC thinking
and communications. I feel that it is much better for the pilot
to take charge of the situation by making suggestive requests
to ATC.
You must learn the ATC method of communicating. It is a special
language that once learned and understood makes everything you
say brief, clear, and understandable. To get it right you must
rehearse. You rehearse to reduce the number of words, to get all
the needed information stated, and to get it out as a smooth unpunctuated
stream of words.
Standard radio phraseology and procedures have been developed
to maximize the communication time available. Controllers are
trained in this but pilots often are not. The pilot training weakness
in this area becomes more apparent at the Private Pilot IFR level.
Pilots need to maintain the integrity of aircraft communications
by knowing and following standard procedures and by knowing where
the problems lie. Memorize the standard phrases and ATC responses.
Aircraft communication is without most of the punctuation, most
of the prepositions and courtesy words used in ordinary speech.
Such speech requires a breaking of years of habit patterns. Speak
as though it were a telegram with emphasis on clarity, the order
of wording and brevity. Don't ask for special favors if it will
inconvenience another plane. Being inconsiderate disrupts the
system for everyone.
A pilot's competence first shows in his communications. Know what
to say, when to say it, and most importantly how to say it. Be
brief without giving up accuracy and completeness. Mentally rehearse
what you are about to say before you say it. ATC will make mistakes,
don't hesitate to question an ATC communication that you suspect
as being in error.
The use of standard terminology when describing your location
in the airport arrival/departure pattern is important. When you
hear other traffic you must be aware as to the potential hazard
in their location's relationship to yours. Don't hesitate to give
your position and altitude as an information check to both other
pilots and tower. Tell tower you are looking for reported traffic,
have traffic, or negative traffic if unable to locate after 30
seconds. It always helps both the tower and other aircraft if
you can include your altitude as well. Always advise if you are
at other than a standard altitude by including the word "high"
or "low". It never hurts to include the runway designation
where there may be a choice between left and right runways.
Should you find yourself flying in a manner that avoids use of
the radio, consider that trying to conceal a proficiency deficiency.
It is far wiser, safer and cost effective to challenge the situation.
Every time you leave out essential information ATC will prompt
you to fill in the blank information. A tape of the procedures
will help you get it right next time. Make an effort to minimize
the use of prepositions. The better your initial call-up the easier
will be any subsequent transmissions.
--Always use your identification and avoid unauthorized transmissions.
ATC will let you talk to another aircraft on request.
--Make brief transmissions but do not use contractions such
as "can't"
--Use standard formats to say headings, distances and altitudes
as separate digits
--"Affirmative" is the only way to say "yes".
--Rehearse aloud before you key the microphone. Use a uniform
rate of speech and standard phraseology
--If you have any doubt as to what was said have it repeated by
using the term "Say Again" and your call letters.
--Let the world know that you are a student pilot when you are
solo.
--When you key the mike it takes a split second before it will
record what you say. Don't chop off your beginning by talking
too quickly. In reverse the same thing applies when through talking.
-- To have ATC repeat something use the words "say again"
and your identification.
--Controllers make mistakes, protect yourself by knowing where
you are, where everybody else is, and what you are supposed to
do.
I orient the student with a pre-selected airport checkpoint for which we have practiced the radio procedure on the ground. I have the student copy the ATIS and practice the call-up. The advantage of using Napa is that the patterns for the 18 runways are directly north, south, east and west. This somewhat simplifies orientation for the student for each leg of the pattern.
A typical call-up would be as follows:
"Napa Tower Cessna 6185K Benicia at 2500 with Alpha will
report left downwind for 18 requesting closed traffic with the
option " (Note: All radio communication is said and written
without punctuation.)
The student makes the call-up and will do all the radio work until
we are downwind. Prior to solo, the instructor will do all radio
work and assume all traffic responsibility. This enables the student
to concentrate on his flying. It helps if this can be done at
an airport that has parallel runways. Every effort should be made
to do as much flying in right turns as in left turns during all
instruction and practice.
The instructional practice, at all controlled airports, of having
the initial radio call up include such phrases as, "request
right base will report two mile base" in anticipation of
the ATC clearance serves a dual purpose. It makes the student
PLAN the arrival and become more sensitive to the possibility
of an ATC error. An additional benefit of this instructional process
is that the student can then use his knowledge of airport checkpoints
for traffic awareness. An airplane reporting at a point on the
other side of the airport can be virtually eliminated as a hazard,
whereas your downwind entry may be in conflict with an aircraft
reporting two-mile base.
It is best that the pilot operate at the informational level of
aircraft communications. You can't give information if you don't
know the information to give. This is the radio system that I
try to teach my students. It goes beyond a mere AIM call-up by
giving altitude, a request and what you expect to do. Further,
my students are expected to be capable of operating at the suggestion
level. This means that they are capable of making and suggesting
a short approach, change runways, make 360s, extended downwind,
etc. before ATC sees the need.
When arriving at a tower airport you must plan your communications
both as to distance, the speed of your aircraft, and the available
reporting points. The faster you are going the further out you
should communicate so as to allow the controller to plan your
sequence. Additional knowledge of aircraft types and relative
speeds will lead to a further refinement of this skill. Usually,
between 7-10 miles out from an Class D airspace will allow you
time to get the ATIS, listen to tower activity, plan the most
economic arrival and make your call-up. Be as exact as to location
and altitude as you can. Be sure to practice before you arrive
at your call-up point. The only arrival that need not be specifically
requested is the downwind entry. If you do not say that you will
report downwind, the controller will tell you to make such a report.
If the straight in or base entry is desired, it must be requested
and the tower will require a two-mile reporting point or call.
Request to overfly above pattern altitude if you are at all uncertain
as to how make your entry. Perhaps the most dangerous of all flight
situations is to make an airport arrival incorrectly. If you are
at all uncertain, go to "slow flight" and ask for assistance
from ATC. The willingness and readiness to admit the need for
help and to ask for it is the ultimate sign of flying maturity.
Only the incompetent pilot thinks he is supposed to know everything
and is consequently reluctant to ask for help.
The pilot must be knowledgeable as to his present position in
relation to the immediate and neighboring aircraft and space.
You can't be comfortable on the radio until you know both what
to say and when to say it. The basic principles of communications
are the same everywhere in the system. It is important to practice
before actually keying the microphone.
A checkpoint call-up difficulty is when there are no good (known)
visual points for your call-up. Then it is necessary for the pilot
to advise ATC by compass direction. FIRST, make sure the heading
indicator is correctly set with the compass. THEN, locate the
direction to an identifiable location such as the airport. NOW,
note the opposite side of the heading indicator and the location
of one or two of the letters N, S, E, W. relative to this point.
If a single letter is within 10 degrees you use that letter. If
this opposite point is between two of the letters you use terms
such as NE, NW, SE, or SW. Do not try to please ATC by agreeing
with a suggestion such as, "Are you NE of the airport?"
without confirming with the heading indicator. IF YOU ARE UNCERTAIN,
say so.
For differing reasons some pilots have difficulty orienting themselves.
Draw a diagram of the airport with pertinent checkpoints at two
and five miles. Go over the arrivals on the diagram one runway
at a time. Be prepared to fly with ATC approval, a two-mile and
five-mile circle around the airport at 2000' with the student.
Point out the checkpoints used for arrivals for straight in, 45's
to downwind, and base entries to the various runways.
The position of the runway number on the heading indicator should
be taught as an indicator to runway arrival. For a downwind 45-degree
entry, with the aircraft pointing toward the landing end of the
runway, the number of the runway will be at the right or left
rear 45-degree mark on the heading indicator. For a base entry
the number of the runway will be at the right or left 90-degree
mark on the heading indicator. For the straight in the runway
number will be on the nose of the heading indicator. An airport
diagram should be studied both before and after the flight.
You should know your home airport better than any others. You
should have checkpoints that give straight-in, bases, and 45-degree
downwind entries for any runway. You should know all the reportable
points in arcs of two, beyond five, ten, and fifteen miles around
your airport. You should also have clearly in mind the safe, obstacle,
noise abatement, and minimum altitudes for all directions on these
arcs. You should become knowledgeable as to the high traffic areas
for local aircraft, transient aircraft, helicopters, etc.
The student will be given the radio for making the departure request.
The student will be coached again on the return flight as to checkpoints
and radio procedures to be used. The procedure for determining
the most economical airport arrival was discussed before departure.
Hopefully, things work out as planned, if they don't adjustments
will need to be made. This process of changing airport arrival
plans is an important part of the process.
Once you have landed and are clear of the runway make contact
with ATC. Do not proceed until you are cleared and FULLY understand
your taxi route. If you require constant taxi assistance, ask
for it. Do not taxi into an unknown situation. The way you ask
ATC for assistance and your willingness to do so is a sign of
competence.
Radio Star
Majored in public speaking. Punctuates everything said. Uses all
prepositions and adjectives to excess.
Mike Fright
Hesitant speech pattern with long pauses and non-verbal noises.
Mental Telepathy
This pilot leaves out essential information in the believe that
ATC has
the required experience to know who he is, where he is, and what
he wants to do.
How Abouts
This creative pilot would take over ATC's prerogative of controlling
aircraft and offer his "how about' suggestions as to how
things could be done his way.
Car 54
This pilot doesn't know where he is. He doesn't know how to tell
ATC that he is geographically misplaced. He tells what he sees
instead of where he is.
Dangerously similar aircraft call signs can be the cause of
a disaster. A mix-up is most likely to occur at the worst possible
time. The problems' source can be on either end of the process,
ATC or pilot. Numbers are a constant source of radio problem because
they are used for altitude, airspeed, directions, frequency and
x-ponder codes as well as tail numbers. Transposition is the most
common occurrence and it is important for the pilot to catch them
and correct them as soon as they occur. Similar numbers are easily
confused as 300, 330, and 030 when giving headings.
We hear and ATC hears what they expect to hear. It is fairly common
the 'hear' what you expect when it is not even said. This is called
selective hearing. Careful listening and careful readback is essential.
When the situation becomes stressful, cut down on the excess of
technology you are scanning. KISS. Keep It Simple Stupid. Under
overload you will lose your system of checking the instruments
and the checklist. Careful listening to the radio even under stress
can ease the communications load. You will pick up when ATC is
talking to someone other than yourself. Whenever you have any
doubt, call for confirmation and give any readback with your full
aircraft identification. Being certain is a great stress reducer.
ATC communications are designed to be a logical flow of information.
anything unusual stands out. When possible always read back transmissions.
If you get it wrong you will be corrected. If you don't know what
to say, stick to approved phraseology. ATC has short attention
spans but long memories. Better to ask for help and not need it,
than not to ask for help when you need it.
Just as you need to prepare for your initial call-up to the
controller, so does the controller need to prepare for your arrival.
Make your call-up from a given checkpoint that will enable you
and ATC to arrange a planned arrival.
Certain elements of conversation are assumed and need not be repeated
or augmented by additional words. Once contact is established,
there is no need to keep addressing ATC by name each time. If
you indicate a certain location on the ground or in the air, you
should elaborate your intentions only if they are other than to
taxi or land. Most of your intentions are very predictable by
ATC, just as are most ATC instructions. Always confirm if any
ambiguity exists.
It's proper to acknowledge ATC transmissions with the last three
alphanumeric of your aircraft. As a student it is better for you
to read back all instructions. "Wilco" means that you
understand and will comply with the instructions but this is not
as assuring to ATC as a complete readback. By common practice
a clearance to takeoff may not require an acknowledgment. If you
feel that you cannot comfortably comply with an ATC clearance
due to lack of knowledge, understanding, or familiarity just say,
"Unable". ATC will then try to come up with an alternative.
This is a much better option than flying blindly ahead. Unexpected
maneuvers in the pattern of an airport are sure to get you an
FAA invitation.
--Transmission of a call sign attached to information given using standard terms, technique, and format.
--Receipt of the information by careful listening and an accurate
readback or acknowledgment.
--Confirmation of the acknowledgment and readback. Never assume
a clearance look for inconsistencies. Learn from mistakes of others.
--At any of these three points a "verify" transmission
regarding uncertainties is always appropriate regardless of how
busy traffic may be.
A pilot's readback of taxi instruction with the runway assignment
can be considered confirmation of the runway assignment."
The foregoing is a new FAA required readback when given a clearance
to taxi by ground control or tower. This ruling is effective throughout
the United States
Communication problems tend to appear at the same places. Some, such as similar aircraft identification, altitudes and headings will always be there. Using your aircraft manufacturer as an addition to your call sign is a good preventive for such identification mistakes. Clear enunciation and the elimination of jargon and non-professional phraseology can reduce hear-back and read-back differences. Headings are always given as three digits. The "usual" spring loaded clearance you always get may not be there this time. Don't be too quick to key the radio. You will have plenty of time if you have planned and practiced your radio procedures far enough ahead.
If ATC should give a clearance involving checkpoints or procedures with which you are unfamiliar, state "unfamiliar" immediately and provide the level of information with which you are familiar. The immediateness with which you do this is important since the sooner you provide ATC options the better it will be for you.
Certain verbiage is best avoided as antiquated, inaccurate, excessive, or unnecessary. "Roger" does not mean "yes", "affirmative" means "yes". Certain words should be omitted because they are obvious. "This is", "With you" are excess terms repeating the obvious and should not be used. The more overs, outs, wilcos, no joys, rogers, and with you the more amateurish it sounds in today's communications. Position is always said before altitude. "Feet" is never included in giving altitude. At 2000 feet can be shortened to at 2000 because "feet" is the only possible meaning. "Miles" are not given as part of a distance. Ten miles north should be said as ten north since no other meaning can be implied. "Over" is not given as part of a geographical position. Over Benicia should be said as Benicia, in an airplane you are obviously "over" a given reporting point.
Metathesis errors occur when your tongue can't keep up with your mind. Metathesis means that you have transposed or switched thing around. Very often metathesis will result in a 'spoonerism'. The best way to avoid metathesis problems is to practice aloud what you expect to say in its entirety.
Certain communications require special attention because of the frequency that misunderstanding or noncompliance occurs. "Hold short...", "Cancel...", "Amend..." are most likely to occur at times of reduced anticipation. The unexpected is least likely to be heard. It may not be possible to hear if simultaneous transmissions obliterate everything to a squeal. In early 1992, I and a competent pilot both missed repeated calls to cancel a takeoff. Neither of us heard anything over the radio until out of 500'. Tower tapes, however, recorded the several calls to cancel takeoff. It happens. It is only belatedly that "how" it happened can be figured out. The advent of "data link technology' is supposed to act as a preventative. (Refer to NASA contractor Report 166462.) Later found that volume control knob has less than 1/16th inch turn between hearing and not hearing.
Always listen to the frequency before speaking. Allow time
for response to a call before keying the mike. If two microphones
are keyed at the same time a whistle on the frequency occurs effectively
blocking everybody. Always have prepared what you are going to
say and say it with the most economy of words sufficient for clarity.
If ATC communicates to you but does not allow sufficient time
for your response or acknowledgment, don't. If, at any time, you
are unsure of what to do, do not understand an ATC clearance or
command, or do not have advised traffic, communicate. If ATC fails
to understand or has trouble understanding you, use different
terms and words to say the same thing.
If you are new to the airport or area let ATC know on your first
call up by using the word "UNfamiliar" with emphasis
on the 'UN'. There is a significant difference if what you say
includes, "...East Ramp taxi"...from "..taxi East
Ramp." If you know the controller is going to give you an
advisory or reporting point, include this information in your
call up. ATC will adjust their thinking and communications to
the situation once you have admitted your lack of familiarity.
If you don't know where you are or what the common checkpoints in use at the airport are, say so. Giving a distance and radial from a VOR is another way. The controller may have you over-fly so he can identify you and set up your arrival. You may request this option instead of having him make the decision for you.
If visibility is a factor, turn on your landing lights and fly so the light is visible from the tower. Include in your radio work that you are "showing a light" until you are identified. It is often difficult for ATC to determine your runway alignment for parallel runways. If another aircraft is in conflict relative to your position don't hesitate to give a progressive call as to your position and altitude. The orientation of your arrival in the early morning or late afternoon may determine whether your or ATC has the visibility advantage. When you are having difficulty seeing or locating let ATC know that you have a problem.
When you are given an advisory while arriving or departing an airport or you hear another aircraft report a location that may be in conflict with your route, don't wait or expect for ATC to tell you about it. They may or may not warn you. Immediately, advise ATC of your position, altitude, and whether you are level, climbing or descending. You are not really talking to ATC. You are advising the other pilot by an indirect communication. This is just one of the flying procedures that makes it possible for a pilot to become an old pilot.
The student who has insufficient experience, study, or question asking is apt to be unfamiliar with many radio terms. If you should hear a term with which you are unfamiliar, say so. Use the term "other words' in a request such as, "Say again, other words." Words such as abeam, abort, acknowledge, advise, expedite, intentions, option, closed traffic, go ahead, unable and others need to be explained to and understood by the student as they apply to ATC and his operations. CALL 1-(800) USA-AOPA for copy of ABC's of Aviation of 78 confusing aviation terms.
The better a pilot is able to tell others about a situation the more likely the situation is not to become the lead in to an accident. Good talkers can overcome Problems where poor talkers let small mistakes create accidents. You can talk your way out of a pre-accident sequence. The use of resource management beyond the cockpit is a vital skill.
I can think back over numerous accidents that need not have happened had the pilot just been able to say the right thing and ask the right questions. Communications in a complex field like flying must be clear and unambiguous to make sure that all involved are working from the same page. Assertiveness is a required attribute ins asking questions, giving directions and seeking help.
Do not get personal. Leave the person you are addressing an opening to make an advisory suggestion. Look for options. You are responsible for getting all available information before taking action.
Years of experience have shown that pilots who are capable of competent communications when in difficulty are more likely to overcome adverse conditions and break the accident sequence. A part of communication is the making of an inquiry as a means for seeking information. Failing to seek information can and has led to the failure to take assertive action. Likewise, it is equally important that you communicate in a clear maner what is known or believed to be true. Resource management goes beyond the cockpit.
1. "I have a problem"
2. State the facts as they seem to be.
3. Suggest an alternative
4. "What would you do?"
Aircraft radio communications are subject to several kinds
of commission and omission errors. A significant part of the problem
comes from the overwhelming volume of radio traffic at specific
'rush hour' times. Add to
this volume pilot/controller fatigue, inexperience, and distractions.
If you ever fly into this situation, go in prepared to talk, listen,
and readback. Ask for verification if you have any doubt in understanding,
orientation, assignment, or traffic. Use standard communications
terms and procedures. Do not rely on ATC to protect you.
Today's flying requires good radios and good radio procedures. Additionally, it helps to frost your radio work with good planning and patience. The constraints of the ATC communications system are being stretched more and more. It only takes one pilot who is incompetent to cause a breakdown. Interestingly, it is not the students under training who are most likely to cause a problem. A pilot under stress is very apt to mis-communicate or step on someone's words. The adrenaline of stress can change words to babble.
Even experienced pilots, myself included, rehearse what I am going to say, And the way I am going to say it. If the frequency is relatively clear I will include a request and my expectations. Otherwise, I keep it brief and concise. Knowing how to adjust to the system in your communications is a skill that the controllers can recognize and appreciate. The value of a given word is inversely proportional to the number of words spoken.
--Beginning to talk before keying the microphone so first word
or so is missed. Talking with out listening for frequency to clear
first.
--A transmission is lost due to interference from another transmission.
--Radio procedures, terminology, phraseology and enunciation
--Confusion due to similar call signs or being unfamiliar with
your call sign. Not picking up on the presence of a similar aircraft
call sign.
--Missed call sign so that acknowledgment or readback is not done.
--Controller failure to require acknowledgment or readback. Procedures,
readback, hearback
--Message not sent by equipment or individual. Solution by technology
--Receiver not monitoring due to frequency, volume, or distraction.
Monitor the frequency a while so you get some idea of what to
expect.
--Message intercepted by wrong receiver. No call sign given.
--Hearing what you expect to hear not what is said. Misinterpretation
due to having your mind spring-loaded for what you expect to hear.
Listen, analyze
--Incomplete transmission due to keying, interference, or equipment.
Most often pilot fails to compress information into key words.
Requires multiple contacts to complete message.
--Information such as numbers transposed. Accepting a remark regarding
traffic at an altitude as an altitude assignment. The shear number
of numbers given over the radio is but a prelude to human mistakes.
Letters can be confused. B,C, D, E, G, P, T, V, Z. Pairs of letters
subject to confusion are IY, FS, MN, A, J, K. You hear what you
expect to hear.
--Non-standard terminology.
--Communication too early/late. Delay request for assistance or
declaring emergency until it is too late for ATC to help you.
--English a second-language
--Contextual specific terms (unfamiliar visual checkpoints)
--Jargon or acronyms specific to area or aircraft.
--Giving excess information before establishing contact with a
radar facility or FSS. Most common when you just want information
and proceed to make a long story out of it. In such situations
just give your identification followed by "request".
--When getting handoff failing to give altitude reference as,
climbing, descending, level.
--Not saying 10,000' as "one zero, ten thousand" and
11,000' as "one one, eleven thousand"
--Failing to advise ATC of flight conditions and fuel remaining.
--ATC does not want a readback of information or 'expect' statements.
Stick to the essentials.
--Time is the only commodity that ATC has. They will waste enough
time for everybody. They don't need any help from you.
--Don't abrogate your responsibility for the safety of your flying
by talking.
All too often you will hear another aircraft or have one pointed out that you can't find but is in apparent conflict with your flight path. It is time be assertive on the radio. Make a call giving your position and altitude to warn both ATC and the other pilot. Be aware, that many pilots report their position as what they can see over the nose and not what is below.
You should know that the General Aviation ELT technology is such that it will be hours before the ELT will actually activate a search. Average time is two hours before search begins. Up to 50 hours before search begins is not unusual. Having a cellular phone is a better option. /Call /afrcc 800/851-3051 for starting an immediate search. ELT's are destroyed or fail to operate 75% of the time. Accident activation rate is only 12% with a 97% false alarm rate. There are 30,000 ELT activations a year.