Sub-folder: Using the ATC System

Page d3 Talking
Using the ATC System

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Contents:
Air Traffic Control (ATC); ...The System; ...Tower Operations; ...Class C and B Airspace; ...Terminal Area;
...Air Route traffic Control Centers; ...Radar Identification; ...FSS Procedures; ...Flight Watch;
...Pilot Arrival Operations; ...Pilot Departure Operatons; ...Travis Airspace;

Air Traffic Control (ATC)
The primary purpose of ATC is the give safe separation between aircraft. This includes airports, enroute, and flight information. The secondary interest is the movement of aircraft. When no other aircraft is in conflict the pilot is in charge. When aircraft conflict in controlled airspace then the conflict and movement becomes a shared responsibility that can be shifted between ATC and the pilot. for example, when ATC points out traffic, the traffic is an ATC responsibility until the pilot acknowledges having the traffic in sight. At that point and until the pilot tells ATC that the traffic is no longer in sight, the traffic remains a pilot responsibility. There may be times when it is to the pilot's advantage "not to see' traffic and to report losing traffic that was once acknowledged as being seen.

In the moving of aircraft, the limiting factor has become not airspace but runway. Airports are two-ended funnels with arriving and departing aircraft focused at each end of the runway. There are limits to what ATC can see and do. It, behooves the pilot to be sensitive to these limits and fly his arrivals and departures to give maximum assistance to ATC while retaining his PIC responsibility to avoid conflicts while expediting movement. The pilot must retain situational awareness of other aircraft both as to position and movement.

All aircraft movements cannot maintain maximum efficiency. There will be delays and waits that are 'safety margins' built into the system. Plan for and expect that your arrival or departure will not be ideal. Do not try to change things that cannot be changed. If your situation becomes critical, declare an emergency sooner rather than later. You are far more likely to hear from the FAA for a failure to declare than you are for declaring.

As with other situations aircraft communications exchanges information through symbols, signs, words and behavior. Very often this communication is imperfect, resulting in erroneous information transfer. there are many causes for error but the most common is incorrect reference. The sender and receiver must be on the same channel to exchange message and feedback.

The student should make a point to visit a local ATC facility such as a tower to learn to put faces with the voices. Some pilots buy radios to listen to at home or in the car. This would be very good, if it were not for the fact that 80% of the General Aviation radio procedures leave much to be desired. Most pilots are not aware of the extent to which the ATC controller patiently compensates for pilot incompetence. Very often the delay in an ATC response is because the controller finds it necessary to sort out what was said and put it into understandable form. The radio identification of a pilot as a student pilot is essential since it allows the controller to be aware and anticipate problems caused by inexperience. On the other hand, the certified pilot is expected to be both competent on the radio and in the air.

Tower controllers, air and ground, are on constant listening watch for relatively long periods of time. Up to two hours. Their brains are turned on when the tower name is said. If you keep saying the tower name after the first contact it only causes confusion. They may write the aircraft call number and expected entry while they issue a clearance. This is a three dimensional chess game with different types of aircraft coming from different directions to different runways at differing speeds. They are good at what they do but the pilot must be knowledgeable as well. Tower controllers will usually clear you for the most economical arrival traffic conditions permitting. Tower communications should always be a concise expression of required information. By including your altitude you provide other aircraft with additional collusion avoidance information.

Professional pilots use the specifically appropriate procedure. It is difficult to accept that over 90% of all ATC radio communications is "canned". There is a standard format of what the pilot should say, a preferred place to say it, a standardized sequence, and a required ATC response. Most ATC communications are "canned" instructions delivered in a predicable highly formatted manner. Once understood these instructions are easy to prepare an answer or possible answers ahead of time. By including ATC requirements in your callup you can anticipate your instructions and get the golden ring as, "Approved as requested".

A 'clearance' is a kind of verbal contract between sender (ATC) and receiver (pilot). The feedback must be accurate so the 'hearback' can be assured of reception. Any error is a potential disaster.

The use of correct 'standard' communications procedure with ATC makes for cleaner more professional operations with less chance of misunderstanding. Think of what you expect the controller to say and incorporate it as a 'request' or advisory. ALL radar facility communications to you are repeated back again in your response in as complete a format as you are able. With experience some abbreviation is permissible. Safety in today's airspace requires mutual understanding and trust. More often than not the operation of the ATC system (not the controllers) is done for the convenience of the system rather than for the convenience of the pilots or their aircraft.

Listen to ATC communications to improve your situational awareness and minimize unnecessary communications. With experience you will be able to anticipate how you can help ATC such as by requesting a different runway or departure. Become sensitive to how busy the controller is and adjust your procedure accordingly. If the controller is obviously busy don't bother with making a request...do that later. If the controller does not give you time to acknowledge...don't. If you are given a command EXECUTE and then use the radio. If you don't understand all or any part of what is said, have them "say again" or "say again all after...".

As a driver, you are familiar with defensive driving. You must fly defensively as well. Never assume that another aircraft is going to maneuver in a given direction or follow a particular ATC directive. On the other hand, you should follow ATC directions. If you don't understand the directions, say so. Don't taxi from your tie-down without knowing where you are going and how you are going to get there. If any doubt exists, get ATC assistance.

The System:
The FAA-ATC radio system has several types of facilities that require subtle differences in use of the radio. Radio procedures are different for tower controlled airports than for other ATC facilities. There are even selective differences between similar airports due to historic preferences or operational requirements. The better you understand why they do what they do the better you will understand the importance of correct radio procedures.

Tower Operations:
The tower controller is known as local control. He is responsible for the active runways, inbound and outbound traffic inside the airport airspace. Ground control is responsible for all airport movement area traffic. This includes cars, trucks, and airplanes on taxiways, some ramps, and inactive runways. Ground coordinates the crossing of active runways with the local controller. The flight data position does such things as getting IFR clearances, making the ATIS, and coordination with approach control. At some airports in very light traffic conditions one person may work all positions.

A supervisor is in watchful command of the total shift operation. He has great flexibility in rotating the positions to maintain efficiency. Each controller goes though initial training in Oklahoma City. He then works
in the facility at each position until certified in that position. The local controller (tower) is playing three- dimensional chess with aircraft of different categories and types. These planes are arriving from different direction, at different speeds, with varying levels of pilot competence. The ATC mandate is to provide safe, orderly, and expeditious movement of traffic. Pilot competence is vital if ATC is to do its job well. The first clue the controller has of pilot competence is the way the radio is used by the pilot. The best way to learn how the system works is to make a practice of visiting towers at every opportunity. When you know what the controllers are doing and why, you can use both the radio and the flight path to make things work better.

Class C and B Airspace
Over 100 U. S cities have a magenta area designated as Class C airspace. Radar service is available but not mandatory. You must establish contact and maintain a listening watch but you can refuse the service. (not smart)
Major cities have Class B airspace. Students are not allowed into Class B airspace without an instructors endorsement as to training and proficiency.

An flight entering a radar service area requires that the pilot plan for the communications involved. Get any required ATIS before making contact with approach. Know exactly where you are going to be before making contact. You can be violated by the FAA for an accidental entry into both Class C and B airspace. The pilot is responsible for the 'see and avoid' mandate and should not place undue reliance on radar advisories.

A radar target not in ATC contact has altitude that is only 'indicated' not confirmed. Traffic advisories are a part of radar services which includes weather advisories, terrain, obstruction, and low altitude alerts. Should you ask for flight following instead of traffic advisories you may not get the rest of the services. It is better and wiser to get all the help you can. Advisory service is available to VFR pilots only when the workload permits.

Terminal Area (TRACON)
Basic separation within 40 miles of single antenna is three miles in airport/terminal airspace. IFR/VFR separation is 1.5-miles in Class B. Beyond 40 miles of antenna it is 5 miles.

The pilot should know that under VFR conditions once you have told ATC that you have visual contact with traffic you may not receive any further radar advisories on that traffic. They may not advise you again of altitude or direction. It is up to you to evade any possible wake turbulence. ATC will let you fly right under a DC-10' wake turbulence and not issue a warning. You must be aware of this lack of protection and be assertive enough to make a 360 or whatever it takes for avoidance. It may be best not to 'see' traffic

Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)
5 miles is the minimum for IFR. Several antenna returns are displayed as one. Center antennae are connected by land line radio systems and parabolic relays spaced about 17 miles apart. ZOA, which is Oakland center, covers an area from the middle of Nevada down to Bakersfield, along the coastal waters of California up to the Oregon Border.

Center operations are separated from TRACON services by distance and altitude. Center services will not be made available unless you have sufficient altitude to give both a radar return and radio communications.

Radar Identification
--Contact and identity established by 1-mile or runway is 'contact".
--Radar return at specific reported position is 'contact'.
--Radar vectors may be used to identify and establish 'contact'
--Transponder codes are used. Mode C gives altitude that must be validated by each successive controller.
Data Block
The computerized radar is capable of showing the aircraft route, a conflict with another aircraft, range and bearing from any fix, and a minimum safe altitude warning.

Failure to mention the frequency you are listening on may require an additional callup. You always save time in communications by doing it right the first time. Your initial communication should include the words, "………listening on (Frequency)". You can improve your FSS communications comfort level by making PIREPS when making local flights. The FSS can offer complete weather service, frequencies, airport information, navigational assistance and emergency assistance. Except for the callup, other communications can be conversational.

Some FSS operations are now only part-time. Do not try to stretch radio range. Use nearest available frequency. Know how to select the appropriate FSS frequency, how to use it correctly and when to use it. Some FSS operation is only part-time. The FAA is in the process of making most FSS operations via remote facilities. Oakland and Rancho will service most of Northern California as the smaller stations are phased out. Reference the AIM Chapter 4-92, 5-81, 70-50/58.

Pilot Arrival Operations
If you are a passive pilot who lets ATC make all your arrival decisions you can just follow orders. This works best if you are quite familiar with the airport and its procedures. At unfamiliar fields you need to work out an arrival with ATC. The easiest, but less efficient way is to request to overfly the field and let them work you into the pattern. Passive radio operations usually require multiple transmissions involving questions and answers. One incompetent pilot with poor radios can tie up the system.

Every light aircraft pilot should be wearing a headset. He should know that microphones are noise canceling. The closer to the mouth the mike the less extraneous noise will intrude. As a pilot you will speak at a measured pace without punctuation. Make no pauses for periods, commas, or thinking. As a student you always let ATC know that you are a student as part of your full aircraft identification so that they can keep an eye on you. ATC communications are practically the same in similar situations. With experience you can recognize the 'canned' aspects and include them in your call-up. The more assertive pilot will take charge of the situation as suggested below. Do all your planning and thinking before you key the mike.

Several planning steps should precede the call-up to a tower-controlled airport. You should get the ATIS well away from the airport. This means you will know the direction of the preferred runway. You will know if a substantial crosswind is involved. You will listen and orient other traffic with reference to your arrival. You will plan your arrival so as to make your initial call-up at a selected reference point and altitude. Reference points are best when they are specific identifiable spot locations. Altitudes below 3000 feet AGL are safest when not at even thousands or five hundreds.

As a student you would be well advised to write your expected arrival out without any shortcuts. Have it so you can read it off. After doing this a few times the writing will no longer be required. Where multiple runways exist some variations are to be expected. With the planning taken care of, you take a deep breath and practice getting everything out in one smoothly paced flow. While you are practicing you will be listening to the radio for ATC references to both inbound and outbound traffic.

Ready begin:
"Podunk tower (Cessna 1234X)(reference point)(at altitude)(with ATIS)(arrival path)(will report) (looking for traffic)". You win if the tower says, "34X approved as requested."

Properly presented and arranged radio work by the pilot helps the controller sort out the factors of aircraft type, position altitude, intentions, and expected report. Making it easy for ATC lets them make it easy for you.

Pilot Departure Operations:
The tower airport departure is a multi step procedure. First you get the ATIS and talk to clearance delivery if radar is involved. This will involve a transponder squawk, departure route, approach frequency and a read back. Plan your call-up to ground just as you would to tower. If you are uncertain or become uncertain don't hesitate to advise ATC and get assistance as you taxi. ATC can see the airport much better from the tower than you can from the ground. On completion of your runup you will contact the local control (tower).

You have looked in the direction you expect to depart before getting into the aircraft. On getting the ATIS you have planned your runway request for the most efficient departure. If you do not get the most efficient departure runway then you must plan your flight departure to establish the easiest interception of the planned route. All too few pilots request the 270 departure that crosses them over the airport on a course that corresponds to the line drew on the sectional. Why begin a flight two miles off course if you don't need to? To help ATC you have named a specific destination rather than a general direction or departure. This provides safer traffic avoidance. A good departure call would be:
"Podunk tower Cessna 1234X student pilot ready (runway number)(right 270 on course Xandu)(have any reported traffic)"

ATC is required to 'point out' any known traffic that may affect your arrival or departure. You should acknowledge that you are looking and when seen you are expected to report 'traffic in sight'. Any time you report having reported traffic you make a friend of ATC since you then assume traffic avoidance responsibility. If after thirty seconds or so you have no visual contact be sure to advise ATC.

Travis Airspace
Travis Approach facility has given two seminars in the last two weeks about the operations, hazards, limitations, use and misuse of its services as offered to General Aviation.

Using a San Francisco Sectional, the Travis radar area is uncharted on the but extends along a line extending northward from four nautical miles west of SABLO intersection through the middle of Lake Berryessa. This is a line that parallels V-195 but four nautical miles to the west. It starts near where V-195 intersects the northern line of the S.F. Class B and extends to the compass rose of the Williams VOR. The northern top extends below the Williams VOR compass rose at right angle across I-5 to intersect a line extending from COUPS intersection on V-6 south of Sacramento Executive northwestward though Davis and Woodland From COUPS the area zigs and zags down to OAKEY intersection on V-108 and covers an area parallel to but four south of V-108 over to reach V-195. A dip in the line extends in a two mile arc below CCR.

The area southeast of Travis radar area is controlled by Stockton Approach. To the south lies Bay Approach, To the west and north Oakland Center reigns. The eastern side borders on Sacramento Approach. Travis radar where not affected by terrain interference controls from the surface to 10,000.

Inside of the radar area is the Alert Area that is charted as Alert Area A-682. Travis has several different patterns for its dual runways. There are IFR, VFR, Radar, and Overhead approaches. Altitudes vary from 2000 to 4000 and very often extend beyond the published A-682 boundaries. This is a radar vector approach that goes directly over Rio Vista at 2000 at all hours. There are MARSA departures in which KC-10s depart at one minute intervals to fly a formation flight at staggered 1000 foot altitudes. Such a departure at speeds up to 250 knots does not give civil aircraft much safe space to operate. Avoid a flight path that conflicts with a MARSA formation.

Military aircraft use a climb to avoid collision. Since any flight below a heavy military aircraft will have wake turbulence below of sufficient power to disintegrate a G.A. plane, it would seem that a turn to avoid under-flying would be the advisable avoidance procedure.

Travis has two basic frequencies, 126.6 to the North and 119.9 to the South. During low traffic periods only 119.9 will be used for the whole area. Military flights that overfly Rio Vista will make their presence known on 122.8. I would suggest users of Rio Vista to use alternative arrival procedures that preclude the use of 2000'.

How to Talk Airplane
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Pilot Departure Operations; ...Tower Departure; ...Pilot Arrival Operations;... Tower Arrival;
...Entering Class D airspace; ...Crossing Class D Airspace; ...Radar Communication; ...ATC Radar Acknowledgment; ...FSS Procedures; ...FSS Problems; ...FSS Communications; ...Flight Watch; ...Uncontrolled Airport;
...Uncontrolled Airport Arrival; ...Common mistakes; ...Aircraft to Aircraft; ...Lost Communications; ...Talking a flight; ...Declaring an Emergency; ...Terms used in Radio Communication;

All too few pilots request the 270 departure that crosses them over the airport on a course that corresponds to the line drawn on the sectional. Why begin a flight two miles off course if you don't need to? To help ATC you have named a specific destination rather than a general direction or departure. This provides safer traffic avoidance. A good departure call would be:
"Podunk tower Cessna 1234X student pilot ready (runway number)(right 270 on course Xandu)(have any reported traffic)"

Tower Departure
Good operational procedures for initial tower call up suggest:
1. Select correct frequency
2. Practice for smoothness, accuracy, and completeness
3. Check for frequency congestion
4. Give full aircraft identification + student pilot
5. Give position and runway (in sequence)
6. Give departure request, direction or destination

With proper radio planning it is easy to go in any direction. A standard departure need not be requested but it is best to include such intent in your call up. Request must be made for straight-out, right/left crosswind, right/left downwind, right/left 270 crossing field 500' above pattern, direct VOR, on course to (destination).

Examples:
"Concord Tower Cessna 6185K ready 32R right standard departure"
"Napa Tower Cessna 6185K ready 18L request straight out"
"Livermore Tower Cessna 6185K ready 25L request right crosswind departure"
"Oakland Tower Cessna 6185K ready 27R request downwind departure"
"Concord Tower Cessna 6185K ready l9L request left 270 departure on course Napa"
"Napa Tower Cessna 6185K ready 24 direct to VOR"

While all of the above procedures are correct, I would again suggest a more appropriate call would be to request an 'on course' to you planned destination. This serves as a mini-flight plan on their tape recording and is a more accurate description of your planned route in terms of traffic advisories.

The aircraft is cleared for takeoff. Prior to taking the runway the plane is turned so that both the final and base can be easily viewed from the cockpit. The clearance is just ATC's way of saying go ahead but if anything goes wrong it is your fault. The basic flight rule of VFR flying is, "See and be seen". During the departure, flight checkpoints and any related radio communications should be identified as well as their relationship to your departure from the airport.

Since more and more airports are building parallel runways the pilot should make a practice of making a 10 degree turn away from the adjoining runway to assure no conflict with departing aircraft on the other runway.
If in your opinion, traffic conditions permit, and you have some need such as opening a flight plan do not hesitate to request a frequency change even though you may still be within the Class D footprint. The tower may or may not accede to your request.

Tower Arrival
Towers are now acquiring BRITE monitors that give the controllers a radar screen picture of their area. The pilot has no way of knowing if this exists without a tower visit. There are different types of BRITE with differing capabilities. By letters of agreement (LOA) the tower may have been given, by the terminal facility, a very specific area and transponder codes for use in that area. BRITE (A radar screen) is used to determine position, provide advisories, suggest headings, (not a vector) and to provide information. The fact that radar is becoming increasingly available makes many arrivals more controlled and seemingly easier. Do not rely on a radar environment to protect you from other aircraft. Just be aware that proper radio procedures are expected in the radar environment. Also, should a suggested vector, heading, or heading fail to avoid traffic or weather you as a VFR pilot bear the primary responsibility. Under the present FARs anything bad that happens under VFR is not necessarily the fault of ATC.

Always get the ATIS; communicate from a known (pre-planned) checkpoint 10 to 20 miles out. If you are unfamiliar, so advise ATC. If another aircraft is arriving so as to conflict relative to your position don't hesitate to give a progressive call as to your position and altitude. Awareness of the relationship between aircraft, their reporting points and your position/route is an important element in flying safety. For this reason report and confess if you are in an unfamiliar situation. ATC and other pilots can then be made aware of a potential surprise. Much better aware and watching than SURPRISED.

Standard terms for 'straight in' arrivals:
"34X 3-4 mile final" May include such terms as "approaching, passed VOR 20 seconds ago, etc. with altitude.
"34X two mile final" This is a required call and if not given by ATC as part of your clearance, give it anyway.
"34X Quarter mile final, low for 32 right"
"34X short final, high for 32 left"

Standard terms for "base' arrivals:
"34X two mile base" Again, this is a required call if not given by ATC in your clearance, give it anyway.
"34X one mile base, high"
"34X close in base"
"34X wide base"

Standard terms for downwind arrivals:
(A left downwind to a left runway or a right downwind to a right runway never need be requested just say that you will report.)
"34X right downwind, high"
"34X wide left downwind"
"34X extended downwind, call my base"
"34X Abeam numbers, request short approach"

Before and after your initial clearance the tower may communicate with another aircraft. Always listen and mentally calculate position/altitude information that may affect your safety. The tower may issue to you a traffic advisory and may ask your position. It is wise to keep a running reference as to your location referenced to known checkpoints. i.e.

"34X Willow Pass thirty seconds ago two thousand looking for traffic"
"34X coming up on the BART yards at one-thousand five hundred have traffic"

If the tower fails to give you an advisory, go ahead and give your own advisory as above for the other pilot's benefit.

Standard terms for 'straight in' arrivals:
"34X 3-4 mile final". May include such terms as "approaching, passed VOR 20 seconds ago, etc. with altitude.
"34X two mile final". This is normally a required call and if not given by ATC as part of your clearance, give it anyway.
"34X Quarter mile final, low for 32 right".
"34X short final, high for 32 left".

Standard terms for "base' arrivals:
"34X two mile base". Again, this is a required call if not given by ATC in your clearance, give it anyway.
"34X one mile base, high".
"34X close in base".
"34X wide base".

Standard terms for downwind arrivals:
"34X right downwind, high".
"34X wide left downwind".
"34X extended downwind, call my base".
"34X Abeam numbers, request short approach".

As with Ground, acknowledge any tower clearance or instruction with the word HOLD in it since it confirms your understanding that at some point you are to STOP.
Tower: 34X taxi closer and hold short 19L...
Response: 34X understand closer and hold short

Tower: 34X taxi into position and hold...
Response: 34X position and hold

Acknowledge any traffic information
Tower: 34X # 2 behind Cessna on base...
Response: 34X looking
When you see traffic...
34X have traffic
When you don't see traffic...
34X negative traffic

The only clearance that need not be acknowledged is for take off, however, it is not wrong to acknowledge it if it can be done without causing delay in moving the aircraft.

--If the controller is obviously busy don't bother with making requests...do that later. If the controller does not give you time to acknowledge...don't.

--If you are given a command - EXECUTE and then use the radio

--If at any point you do not understand use "34X say again" or "34X say again everything after..."

Entering Class D airspace
Suggestions by an ATC tower to answer questions and reduce problems. Two-way communications must be established prior to entry and must be maintained in Class D airspace. Pilots should contact the tower with position, altitude, destination, and any requests.
1. Listen before you transmit. Know what you want to say before you key up.
2. Acknowledge instruction.
3. Advise tower as soon as possible if you request pattern work.
4. Request preferred runway on initial call. It's not guaranteed, but they try.
5. Readback runway assignments. This is now a national requirement, not just "roger" or two clicks of the mike button.
6. Readback runway hold short instructions. ATC is required to obtain from the pilot a readback of all runway hold short instructions.
7. When ready for departure, say runway and departure request. This saves you and ATC extra transmissions that add up when it's busy.

Crossing Class D Airspace
"Napa tower Cessna 1234X Crockett at l900 request flight through your Class D airspace surface area enroute Santa Rosa will report clear"
Tower will normally approve the transit, give you the current altimeter setting and remind you to report clear.

Radar Communication
The callup to every radar facility is the same.

Initial Call
Travis approach, Bay departure, Oakland Center
Name of facility, full aircraft identification + "Student pilot " over

Travis Approach Cessna 6185K student pilot over

The reasons for this brevity is because the radar controller has a multiplicity of tasks. In addition to your frequency he may have a military one. He has a phone line for contact with controllers of adjacent areas. He often records data and writes notes. In low traffic periods one controller may have two areas and two frequencies. Under certain workload/weather conditions VFR advisories may not be possible. When this condition exists you will be so advised. A visit to a radar facility will help you be more understanding as to why the controller does not answer immediately.

A more distant initial callup procedure allows the controller to select when to contact you as his workload permits. Wait at least 30 seconds before calling again. The more efficiently you communicate the more likely it is that you will be accommodated since good communications reduce the workload.

ATC Radar Acknowledgment:
Make NO response if told to standby. When the controller is able you will be told to go ahead. However, you may be occasionally 'forgotten".

"Cessna 85K go ahead with your request"

When the controller acknowledges your existence give the particulars of your flight and aircraft.
Full call sign
Type of aircraft
Present position, present altitude and final altitude.
(Altitude given is checked with radar encoder readout)
Destination
En route altitude
Request

You give all the data but ADD aircraft type present altitude and final altitude. The controller will ask for anything you leave out. The ATC specialist adds the type information to the radar data block. The present altitude information is used to check the accuracy of your transponder encoder. Once you are established at an altitude do NOT leave that altitude without first advising ATC. Your transponder code assignment will indicate IFR/VFR and destination.

The response would be similar to:
Cessna 150 6185K Student Pilot two north Concord VOR out of two thousand two hundred for five thousand five hundred enroute Chico (The enroute altitude is determined by magnetic course.)

ATC will assign a squawk and confirm your Mode C operation by saying,

"85K squawk 5234", say altitude.

The importance of correct, concise, and accurate communications when dealing with a radar facility is essential. You are required to fly assigned headings and altitudes. If you wish to change heading or altitude advise ATC. If there is a traffic conflict ATC may provide an alternative. Always write down squawk and frequencies. Always repeat back squawk, frequencies, heading, and directions as much as practical. If you need something repeated, say so. If you cannot visually locate conflicting traffic, do not hesitate to indicate that you will accept (want) a vector for traffic avoidance. When given a handoff to another sector you just have to tell the controller your altitude.

"Sacramento Approach Cessna 6185K level at 6,500"

Again, if no response, wait 30 seconds and call up again. When work load permits they will respond. There is a more complete radar study included with Cross-Country Procedures.

Do not believe that being on radar relieves you from 'see and avoid' responsibility. As a VFR flight you are relatively low on the ATC totem pole. When ATC radar advises you of nearby traffic you should acknowledge the 'point out with.
"85K have traffic"

Do this only if you are sure of the traffic direction, distance and aircraft type. If you are uncertain or have failed to see any aircraft of the type indicated you say,

"85K negative traffic"
If after thirty seconds to a minute you still have not identified the traffic and you feel that a hazard may be involved, you should request vectors for avoidance by saying,
"85K will accept vectors"

The controller may indicate that traffic is no longer a factor or may give your a vector by saying,
"85k turn to 030"

Your response will be the direction of the turn and the heading given so as to establish the certainty of your instructions.
"85k left/right to 030"

When you are clear of the traffic ATC will instruct you to resume your own navigation.

If your transponder is not making a reply or is giving the wrong code ATC will request that you recycle. This means to turn it off then on and roll through the numbers again. This often is sufficient to fix the problem. If some aspect of transponder operation is unsatisfactory ATC can usually work with a primary signal. Under the escape clause "unless otherwise authorized or directed by ATC" you can be given a waiver. The willingness to ask for help when you need it from ATC is more important than whether your transponder is working. Not only can ATC give you vectors they can give you 'no gyro' aid that will get you out of IFR conditions into VFR.

FSS Procedures
The FSS may have up to 12 radios operating from one switch panel. It is necessary for the pilot to know the differing dedicated frequencies and how to obtain them. The emergency 121.5 and FSS universal 122.2 frequencies do not usually appear on charts or other sources. You, the pilot, are expected to know that these are common to Flight Service Stations. If a frequency for an FSS is followed by an R, it means that the FSS can only receive; if a frequency is followed by a T, it means that the FSS can only transmit on that frequency. Since some of the frequencies may be far beyond the line of sight requirement it is important to be careful in making your frequency selection.

Failure to mention the frequency you are listening on may require an additional callup. You always save time in communications by doing it right the first time. Your initial communication should include the words, ....listening on (Frequency). You can improve your FSS communications comfort level by making PIREPS when making local flights. The FSS can offer complete weather service, frequencies, airport information, navigational assistance and emergency assistance. Except for the callup, other communications can be conversational.

Some FSS operations are now only part-time. Do not try to stretch radio range. Use nearest available frequency. Know how to select the appropriate FSS frequency, how to use it correctly and when to use it. Some FSS operation are only part-time. The FAA is in the process of making most FSS operations via remote facilities. Oakland and Rancho will service most of Northern California as the smaller stations are phased out. Reference the AIM Chapter 4-92, 5-81, 70-50/58.

An FSS briefer must master six different phases of operations.
1. Preflight
2. Standard briefing, abbreviated briefings, outlook briefings
3. Weather observation
4. Flight data
...............The getting flight plans, messages, search and rescue,
5. Inflight
................All air to ground communications, inflight flight plans, position reports, weather requests, lake and mountain service, ................flight watch and airport advisory service (AAS)
6. Airport advisories

FSS Problems
Key question: "If you were a pilot would you go?
--Pilots who do not understand terminology
--Pilots who cannot listen and ask questions related to information already given.
--Pilots who take offense at required "VFR not recommended" when weather is below a specific point.
--Pilots who cut the briefing short. Allowed but presents problems for briefer who is required to follow a specific format.
--Pilots who call flight watch for the wrong reason such as giving a position report.

FSS Communications
The callup to an FSS uses the format.
"Name of FSS radio, aircraft identification listening on (frequency)"
Listen for frequency congestion and check frequency. The initial FSS contact is always the same....

34X Callup: "Oakland Radio Cessna 1234X listening 122.5. Since the operator may be on any one of a number of radios at a different frequency you must wait before trying again.

FSS: "Cessna 1234X Oakland Radio go ahead"

Flight Watch
Sitting very near the FSS radio specialists is the Flight Watch radio specialist. His duties extend from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. local times. This is a nationwide weather information service operating on 122.0. The first Flight Watch station was activated at Oakland about twenty years ago. Since this is the only frequency he may have up to eight remote locations. Oakland has one at Reno, Red Bluff, Oakland, Big Sur, Sacramento, Fresno, and Ferndale near Eureka. There are three HiWAS frequencies for the airlines. Any aircraft over 5000' should be able to contact Flight Watch.

The essential is that the pilot give the name of the nearest VOR. Response may not be immediate because the specialist may be 'working' another aircraft hundreds of miles away from your location. This is an excellent frequency to monitor when flying cross-country but contact should be related to weather. You may be able to give another pilot valuable information about your route as well getting real time information for your destination.

34X: "Oakland Flight Watch Cessna 1234X (NEAREST VOR) over"

Always include in initial call up your location related to the nearest V0R. This allows the operator to select the best remote transceiver for your location. This is a weather service and, except in emergencies, should be limited to weather. Requests and information have a regular format but conversational exchanges are acceptable.

EFAWS: "Cessna 1234X Oakland Flight Watch go ahead."

34X: "Cessna 34X VFR CCR-RNO have hit stronger than forecast head winds near Blue Canyon. Estimate winds to be 340 at 18-kts at 9500. Light turbulence high cirrus 40-mile visibility. Do you have additional information also current surface winds at Reno?

Uncontrolled Airport
Regulatory provisions relating to traffic patterns are found in Parts 91, 93 and 97 of the FARs. ACs 90-42 and 90-66A are advisory for safety and efficiency. See-and-avoid requirement fully applies. All available information from AFD (Airport/Facilities Directory) AIM and NOTAMs is required by FAR. Use of Visual indicators (segmented circle, windsock) must be used. Statistically a midair is most likely to occur in the pattern of an uncontrolled airport.

The one place you can reduce the cost of being wrong on the radio at uncontrolled airports by always assuming the worst possible situation at an uncontrolled airport. Make it a point to report your positions and intentions several times on an IFR uncontrolled airport arrival. Even an IFR approach that makes a straight-in to an uncontrolled airport may increase the safety factor by doing a circle with a standard pattern entry.

The straight-in approach to an uncontrolled airport is not, of itself, inherently dangerous. Straight in approaches, while not prohibited, must not be disruptive to normal pattern operations. Possible straight in approaches (as with instrument approaches) greatly increase see-and-be seen requirements. The straight-in eliminates the need to overfly and make a 45 entry. AC 90-66A advocates the 45 entry but indicates that the straight in, IFR or VFR, should not require maneuvers that disrupt other traffic. FAR ,91.127(b) Says that all turns shall be to the left unless otherwise depicted. A straight-in requires no turns. NTSB Administrative Law Judges have found the straight-in a violation of FAR 91.113.

There are two different kinds of unicom.
1.) Every tower airport has a unicom on frequency 122.95. The callup gives, "Airport name unicom, aircraft identification and request".

Due to the personnel or physical constraints several calls may be required to establish contact. Commonly used to order fuel, services, or transportation. 122.95 is the universal nationwide unicom frequency for TOWER fields. Such an airport unicom is used for ordering fuel, taxis, making phone calls or personal requests. It is frequently advantageous to contact the unicom a few miles out so that transportation will be there when you land. Some fields may have additional frequencies but 122.95 is standard. Only at the very largest airports will this frequency operate on a 24-hour basis.

2.) Many uncontrolled airports may offer unicom service on the CTAF frequency given on the sectional. This means that there may be someone on the field to respond to a radio call during normal working hours.

The callup is:
"Name of field unicom, aircraft identification, location, altitude, request traffic advisories( or other request)and name of the field."

If there is a unicom response it may be limited to suggesting a runway and traffic direction. (The Good Samaritan situation has created liability they may not wish to assume with additional advice) If there is not unicom response all further transmissions should be addressed to "traffic".

Non-radio-equipped aircraft are expected to determine pattern in use. Since one in five General Aviation aircraft do not have radios. Radio use is not required but good sense dictates monitoring and use. One of the problems at uncontrolled airports is radio complacency. You begin to believe that if no one is on the radio that no one is there. Don't you believe it.

Some of the CTAF frequencies are quite congested on weekends. It is important that the NAME of the place/airport be the first and last word of any CTAF communication. This alerts pilots in your area and allows others to discount your presence. This change is of relatively recent origin, about 10 years. You will still hear many pilots failing to use this procedure because they were not initially taught that way. Relearning is, perhaps, the most difficult aspect of flying. Relearning is also one of the most resisted phases of instruction. However, what was good enough forty years ago or even five years ago is not good enough today.

Always include the runway number you plan to use. This provides an additional alert if someone missed the place/airport name as well as possible winds/ runways at nearby airports. Do not totally rely on such runway calls for what you should use. Since the use of the CTAF frequency nor the 45-degree entry is not REQUIRED you must use see-and-be-seen vigilance in all directions. If you have reason to believe density altitude over 1000' above AGL exists it would be helpful to include your computation in your communications with other aircraft.

The eyes and ears of the ATC controller augment situational awareness at a tower-controlled airport. At the uncontrolled airport it is only the pilot(s) who are responsible. The see and be seen limits of situational awareness must be supplemented with what you hear and orient over the radio. The radio, properly used, tells everyone else where to look. Other pilots must use what you say on the radio to both locate and anticipate your actions. There is a vital supplement to visual contact in the radio communications. The radio is the only way you can express intent and allow any other pilot to anticipate what you are going to do. Situational awareness relies on the pilots both speaking, listening, responding and looking

Total awareness requires both the eyes and ears. You tell other aircraft where you are, your altitude, and your intentions. This can be give in specific words or by implication. "34X right downwind for 25" tells other
pilots that you are at pattern altitude, flying to the left side and parallel to runway 25 and will soon be turning base. Other pilots may (should) be listening and interpreting your call to their situation. An aircraft with pertinent information or in the immediate vicinity may well respond.

Communication only occurs when there is both a speaker and a listener. This self-announcing process of giving position, altitude and intentions is the only way to can fill in the situational awareness of other pilots. If you fail to begin and end each announcement with the airport name you just confuse the situation for all concerned on the frequency. "What airport?, is a common call when airport identification is left out.

Unicom frequencies now in use (1997) are 122.7, 122.725, 122.8, 122.975, 123.0, 123.05, 123.075
122.75 is air-to-air and private airport operations
122.9 is multicom at unattended and uncontrolled airports
122.925 is an environmental protection frequency.
122.85 air search and rescue

Uncontrolled airport arrival
1. PLANNING
Runways
Reporting points
45 degree arrivals only
Pattern altitude/direction
Frequency

2. ARRIVAL
15 mile callup:
1. Podunk unicom Cessna 1234X KEY Intersection at 2000 request traffic advisories Podunk (if no answer...
Podunk traffic Cessna 1234X KEY Intersection at 2000 planing to overfly at 2000 prior to landing Podunk

2. Podunk traffic Cessna 1234X over the field at planning landing (runway) right/left traffic Podunk

DON'T MISREAD WIND SOCK, TETRAHEDRON, OR SEGMENTED CIRCLE!!!! Misreading is easy to do.

Depart over the field on a reciprocal 45-degree to the 45-degree entry. Lose half of altitude to pattern altitude. Execute a left/right course reversal while descending to pattern altitude on 45-degree entry. You should be at pattern altitude before reaching the pattern. This greatly improves your see/be seen opportunities. Arriving slightly high is better with high-wing and slightly low with low-wing aircraft for better visibility. Watch the ground for shadows.

Look for additional ways to determine runway in use, such as arriving or departing aircraft, smoke/dust/waves. Nearby airports are good indicators. Try to plan the most efficient arrival conducive to safety. Avoid the pattern altitude until you are in it.

DON'T FLY INTO THE PATTERN ALTITUDE IN THE BLIND!!!!!

RADIO:
Podunk traffic Cessna 34X on 45 for (runway number) Podunk
Podunk traffic Cessna 34X right/left downwind for (runway number) Podunk
Podunk traffic Cessna 34X right/left base for (runway number) Podunk
Podunk traffic Cessna 34X final for (runway number) Podunk

PRIORITIES:
1. Fly the plane
2. Maintain proper altitudes and headings
3. Keep eyes outside cockpit and watch for traffic
4. Communicate
122.9 Traffic only advisories at airports without frequency on sectional
123.6 Uncontrolled field with FSS for arrival and departure only

Common mistakes:
1. Not calling up soon enough to get advisory
2. Not observing traffic pattern/windsock direction
3. Turning downwind too close to runway
4. Becoming distracted and not attending to airspeed and pattern orientation
5 Trying to hit the end of the runway
6. Delaying addition of power if low
7. Delaying go around if a poor approach/flare
8. Not clearing runway immediately

DEPARTURE:
1. Full 360 degree clearing turn on ground prior departure
2. Advise traffic of departure and direction

The addition of the name of the airport at the end of each radio call is by an AD (Advisory Circular) June of 1985. When an omission occurs you can be certain that the pilot has avoided additional training since 1985.

Non-unicom Uncontrolled Airports:
All callups are made to the airport "Location name, traffic, aircraft identification, position, altitude, intentions and location name" on 122.9. Any responses to your "blind" communications would be from other aircraft.

Aircraft to Aircraft:
All callups must, according to FCC, include full identification of both aircraft. 122.75 is the aircraft to aircraft frequency. It is best to use this frequency by prior arrangement with another plane.

Most airports have several special situations which require special flight procedures. The best way to get this information is by visiting the tower. Make a phone call to the airport and have a list of prepared questions. I would suggest arranging a discussion and analysis for any arrival and departure at neighboring airports with a pilot familiar with the location. In my instructional area there are airports in differing quadrants that vary from having an ARSA underlying a TCA to uncontrolled.

Lost Communications
Being unable to communicate to ATC is not a VFR emergency. There are standard arrival procedures to use and ways to let ATC know that you have a problem. The most common causes of lost communications are pilot error in use of his equipment. Low time pilots are most apt to experience lost communications. Under high workload situations a pilot is likely to not to catch a lost communications problem. Lost communications are usually discovered when trying to communicate. Experience has indicated the following order of difficulty. The average time before problem recognition is nearly ten minutes.

--Misuse of audio panel causes over 50% of problems
--Using wrong radio
--Volume too low
--Incorrect frequency (Failure of pilot to write down frequency.)
--Forgot to change frequency
--Using wrong frequency usually from failure to write down frequency.
--Two simultaneous transmissions resulting in frequency whistle
--Stuck microphone switch (Causes 60% of blocked frequencies.)
--Electrical failure
--Given incorrect frequency by ATC
--ATC radio problem
--Asleep (64% of radio incidents occur in cruise flight.)

The use of a radio log sheet which is completed prior to each flight is a good practice. When you have only one radio you have a limited capability and a self-limiting problem. Always keep the audio panel on speaker or phone. Monitor a frequency until you are ready to communicate.

When using multiple radios, develop a technique of always making your initial contact on the #2 radio and rolling that frequency to the #1 as soon as contact has been established. If you have dual flip-flops keep your communications in the #1 and ATIS frequencies in the #2. This removes the audio panel as a problem. Develop a sequence of movements for changing a frequency that will include the setting of the next expected frequency. The next frequency will often be given to a preceding aircraft, listen up and put it into your radio. This will unload one facet of the next ATC directive requiring multiple actions. Take all the help you can get.

When radios get fancy some basic skills fall. Under single radio operations you kept a written radio frequency log. With flip-flops you may tend to neglect your log. No problem until your frequency display LED fades out or loses a leg or two. Now you get to practice locating a missing frequency by bird-dogging through other ATC facilities. Towers can give your many of the radar frequencies in their area.

Talking a flight
1. Study area maps and become familiar with all checkpoints.
2. Select call-up checkpoints and altitude for both directions.
3. Plan most economical departure/arrival traffic permitting.
4. Make a frequency list for both directions.
5. Before you get into the plane point the way you want to go.
6. Verbalize what you will say to the tower from all departure runways.
7. Say 'STUDENT PILOT' when using full identification.
8. If radios do not appear to work, suspect yourself first.
9. Acknowledge all communications except, "Clear for takeoff".
10. Face approaching traffic while holding short.
11. Clear (turn toward base & final) the runway before takeoff.
12. Refuse "Cleared for immediate" as a student pilot.
13. Know your Class D airspace footprint line for frequency change.
14. Start listening to arrival ATIS as far away as possible.
15. Listen to other planes as they arrive/depart so as to be situational aware of traffic hazards.
16. Verbalize what you will say to the tower for all arrival runways with requested approach and reporting point.
17. Initiate descent to allow smooth entry into pattern.
18. Have the pattern altitude MSL written down on sectional.
19. Communicate well outside the tower controlled airspace.
20. If you start getting behind, so to slow flight.
21. Keep track of inbound/outbound checkpoints so that at any time you can give the tower your position and altitude.
22. If traffic conflicts seem possible give position and altitude without being asked.
23. If in doubt request to overfly above pattern altitude for orientation.
24. If you become confused--communicate.
25. Acknowledge all traffic calls (looking-have-negative)
26. Advise ATC early if having any kind of difficulty.
27. Obey an ATC command and then acknowledge.
28. Fly with the microphone in your right hand
29. Get a good headset and mike switch as soon as possible.
30. In the pattern, verbalize your clearing and actions in flying to keep normal approach.
31. Respond to the tower only if control of plane is assured.
32. Go to slow flight if you are #3 or more in the pattern.
33. Accept short approach only if certain of your capability.
34. Do not force clearing the runway; be smooth and gentle.
35. Put microphone in left hand while on the ground.
36. Taxi well clear of runway for following traffic.
37. Cross the hold bars before changing frequency.
38. Face possible approaching traffic if crossing a runway.
39. Request taxi assistance if you are the least uncertain as to how to proceed.

Declaring an Emergency
There are no requirements for the declaration of an emergency. If you are having difficulty and have doubts as to your ability to guarantee a safe outcome, declare an emergency. Use Pan Pan if there is no immediate danger, if you have any doubts as to the urgency use Mayday. You are more likely to be facing FAA paperwork for not declaring an emergency than you are for declaring one.

Take the easiest/safest way out. Contact ATC and get all the help you can. You can expect an FAA interview concerning your judgment/decision to declare an emergency. FAA will not second-guess what happened in the cockpit. If the pilot is reasonable in saving life and property an FAR deviation will usually be considered justified.

ATC, "Say intentions".
Pilot, "Say suggestions."

Terms Used in Aircraft Communications:
SAY AGAIN (May be used by ATC or pilot.)

APPROVED AS REQUESTED..The golden Ring award for pilot communications.
REQUEST CLOSED TRAFFIC WITH THE OPTION

SEQUENCE (Advise me of my order of landing or departure)

CLEARANCE (Advise me of whether I have been cleared or my order of landing)

SAY TRAFFIC (Tell me of aircraft in my vicinity.)
By ATC
EXTEND DOWNWIND Usually required when traffic on final needs to clear before you turn base. Pilot might suggest 360 away from airport or 270 with entry on base.
CLEARED FOR THE OPTION This request by pilot gives landing choice of go-around, touch-and-go, stop and go, or full stop landing.
MAKE SHORT APPROACHPilot or ATC deniable request to get to runway as quickly as possible due to traffic requirements or pilot practice.

CLEARED FOR LOW APPROACH ATC clearance that allows flying low over runway.

GO AROUND
Pilot action or ATC directive to immediately abort landing and initiate climbing due to traffic considerations. One of the options for closed traffic with the option.

MAKE R/L THREE SIXTY Pilot or ATC request for full circle to acquire spacing in traffic pattern.

MAKE R/L TWO-SEVENTY AND RE-ENTER ON BASE Used by pilot or ATC to accomplish a 90-degree turn in one direction by turning 270° opposite direction for spacing or altitute purposes.

WIDEN TO FOLLOW Pilot or ATC request that aircraft be turned not to follow but to fly outside prior traffic to increase spacing.

HOLD SHORT ATC command that means to go to a certain position and stop. Must be acknowledged.

HOLD SHORT OF... Names point on airport where aircraft must be stopped. May be on the runway or on a taxiway

TAXI CLOSER AND HOLD SHORT.... ATC is effectively saying that you must be closer and ready to move the aircraft due to traffic.

TAXI INTO POSITION ATC directive for you to get on the runway and be ready for takeoff.

REPORT...ATC request for you to say when you reach a pre-selected point around the airport or in the pattern.

IN SIGHT ...ATC statement that they have visual contact with your aircraftCAUTION WAKE TURBULENCE ATC warning of potential for wake turbulence that removes responsibility for what occurs from ATC. Advise ATC of what evasive action you plan to take. Wait, turn, climb, etc.

FOLLOW... ATC directive for you to locate and follow preceding traffic.

CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF ATC statement that you may depart but whatever happens as a result is your fault and responsibility.

CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF R/L TURN APPROVED ATC clearance that includes approval of previous departure request by pilot.

CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF...APPROVEDCLEARED FOR TAKEOFF...APPROVED WITH REFERENCE TO ... ATC clearance that includes limited approval contingent on pilot locating and remaining clear of specified traffic.

CONTINUE STRAIGHT OUT UNTIL ADVISED... ATC restriction on takeoff climb that no turns are to be made until ATC authorizes
.
CONTINUE STRAIGHT OUT I WILL CALL YOUR....(same as above)

REPORT TWO MILE FINAL... ATC restriction on entry into Class Delta airspace that requires pilot to state position at a specific point of entry.

REPORT TWO MILE R/L BASE...(same as above)

REPORT DOWNWIND...(same as above)

EXPEDITE CROSSING... ATC demand that movement be made quickly.

TURN R/L NEXT EXIT TRAFFIC SHORT FINAL ...ATC request/demand that pilot get off the runway. May be refused but will probably require following aircraft to make go-around. Refuse if safety is compromised.

TURN R/L SECOND EXIT HOLD SHORT...ATC may have specific reason for you not to take first exit.

CONTACT GROUND ON...ATC may give directive while still on runway. Aircraft must cross hold-bars before changing frequencies.

EXPEDITE TO END TRAFFIC BEHIND ...ATC request that you move quickly because of following traffic. Do so only if safe
.
LONG LANDING APPROVED ...You are normally expected to touchdown on a runway within a 1000' of the approach end. If you wish to land further down the runway make the request and await approval. Responsibility for going off the end rests on the pilot.

CLEARED TO LAND HOLD SHORT OF.... Where simultaneous runways are in use, some clearances are approved only with ATC limitations.

REPORT REACHING... Due to other traffic or regulations, ATC may need to know when you reach a given point that may not be apparent to ATC
.
REPORT CLEAR...(same as above)

CALL MY TRAFFIC (Tell me of aircraft in my vicinity.)

CALL MY BASE (I am on downwind but need you to tell me when to turn base.)

CLEARED INTO THE CLASS C AIRSPACE AT... REPORT CLEAR...IS CLEARED OUT OF THE CLASS C SURFACE AREA TO THE (DIRECTION)...

MAINTAIN APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDE

MAINTAIN SVFR WHILE IN THE CCR CLASS D AIRSPACE AT OR BELOW (ALT) REPORT CLEAR OF CLASS D AIRSPACE SURFACE AREA OR VFR WHICHEVER OCCURS FIRST... IS CLEARED INTO THE CLASS D AIRSPACE FROM THE (DIRECTION) MAINTAIN SVFR WHILE IN THE AIRSPACE SURFACE AREA AT OR BELOW (ALT) REPORT ENTERING THE CLASS D AIRSPACE REPORT ...

NORDO Means NO RaDiO ATC term for aircraft without communications

PROGRESSIVE TAXI
Requested by pilot or offered by ATC when aircraft is unfamiliar with required taxi route. ATC will give directions and call all turns.

MAINTAIN RUNWAY HEADING Means to fly runway # heading

SAY HEADING
A polite ATC reminder that you apparently are not flying the direction you are supposed to. Check Compass/HI alignment.

STAND BY
This means that the listener should not respond but, rather, should wait for the speaker to continue at a later time.
SQUAWK STANDBY
Transponder request by ATC when your transponder may be giving an incorrect response.

WHEN ABLE
This is an ATC request or command for the pilot to perform something as conditions permit without regard for non-safety related requirements. sually used by ATC to get you out of the way of a faster traffic behind.

VERIFY or CONFIRM Check on previous information. Important that pilot always check on ATC to assure correct understanding of instructions.

Ground Radio Talk Is Important

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Contents:
Departure Taxiing; ...Arrival Taxi; ... Taxiing Problems; ..Side note; ..After landing;

Departure Taxiing
Whether in the air or on the ground it is important that the pilot have situational awareness. It is not enough to just know your position. You must know and anticipate the communications requirements of what lies ahead. If you are given a command, EXECUTE, then use the radio. It is just as easy to inadvertently break an FAR on the ground as in the air. The violation is far more likely to be noticed on the ground.

You should make any request for a taxi route or runway to ground on initial call up. An aircraft costs just as much for ground time as for airtime. Ask for a closer runway if it is better for your purposes and winds within your capability. Traffic permitting, you will be accommodated by your friendly ATC.

You are required to:
--Read back all runway hold short instructions. This must include your aircraft number and the taxiway or runway identified by ATC. You cannot move past the holding point until issued a clearance by ground. (This the only time Ground Control uses the word 'cleared".) If you have any doubt as to what to do, ask ATC for help.

--Read back the name of the runway as given in your taxi instructions.

--Read back all runway crossing, holding, and takeoff clearances.

The actual departure is relatively simple since the active runway can be observed. However, it is necessary to discuss and practice the departure to be requested for the direction of flight. You must hear other traffic as they communicate. You must be aware as to the potential hazard caused by their present position and movement. You must study airport areas so as to be aware of where to look.

"Concord ground Cessna 1234X East ramp with (ATIS word)
request...if any"

When Ground replies:
"Cessna 34X taxi to 34L"
You are now required to respond with your identification and the runway as assigned:
"34X taxiing to 34L"

You have done your run-up well clear of taxiways and allowed maximum room in the area for other aircraft. You have faced the wind for `engine cooling'. Mandatory when you start flying high performance aircraft. After completion of the runup checklist and the pretakeoff checklist you must contact the tower before taxiing out. If you know that other aircraft are ahead of you add the words 'in sequence' to the callup. Acknowledge any clearance with the word hold in it and repeat back the instruction.

Arrival Taxi
The transition from flight to ground control of an aircraft is a busy time for pilots. It is often just the moment that ATC advises that you should contact ground often along with other instructions, i.e.
...when clear
...hold short of...
...cross and contact ground...
...remain this frequency until...
...expedite...
and combinations of these.

The pilot is well advised to become familiar with the nuances of this transition. Remain on tower frequency until you are clear of the runway. You are not clear of the runway until you cross the hold bars. Exiting on intersecting runways without hold bars is a judgment situation as to how far is 'clear'.

After landing and clearing the runway by crossing the hold lines, you should wait for tower to direct a change of frequency. Determine your location before communicating. Have mike in left hand so that right hand is on throttle. If you are planing to be IFR rated get a headset and yoke mike.

You should wait for tower to direct a change of frequency. You should remain on the tower frequency until told to change, however, if the controller is very busy you might contact ground on your own. A judgment call. Try to face approaching traffic and get a clearance before moving.

If you are uncertain as to where to go, request taxi assistance. Determine your location before communicating. If you don't know where you are, say so and give any relevant information beginning with your last known position even if it was a departure point, your planned route. Describe buildings, nearby aircraft, signs, directions, painted lines or terrain.

"Concord ground Cessna 1234X holding short of the left
to transient parking unfamiliar"

Taxiing Problems
Forty-six percent of all aircraft accidents occur on the ground. A small percentage of these ground accidents occur due to runway incursions. An aircraft goes on to a runway where it does not belong. However, several hundred incursions occur every year that do not result in accidents. The pilots guilty of these incursions become subject to FAA and/or NTSB sanctions. A clearance to taxi to a runway allows you to cross all runways and taxiways on the way but does not allow you to go on the assigned runway or any parallels at any point.

The four causes of runway incursions are:
1) Controller/operational,
2) Pilot factors,
3) Ground vehicles, and
4) Obstacles on runway.

Memory loss is the number one cause of controller errors. Distraction is the major cause of this loss of memory. Controllers may make a separation misjudgment by mistakenly making speed assumptions that are not there. Controller coordination or phraseology in the tower between local and ground can be a problem if an aircraft is cleared to taxi in front of a landing aircraft. The last area of causes is communication, which comprises a vast range of problems. Readback and hearback is a forever difficulty.

Pilots forget to do what they say they will do. All of the controller causes are compounded because the training levels of pilots are not as consistent as that of controllers. Pilots are more likely to have equipment difficulty. The biggest difference is situational awareness. Controllers know where they are. The pilot must form a mental picture of who is where in the air and on the ground. Pilots tend to get misplaced and lost. The more experienced the pilot the more ready he will be to accept controller taxi assistance. You can learn to anticipate what the controller is going to do. Do not accept a clearance which you believe will place you in harms way.

Side note:
Taxi directions are clearances even though the word clearance is omitted. If you are given a 'stop' during taxi you must be given a clearance to proceed.

After landing
· Exit the runway without delay at the first available taxiway or on a specified taxiway as instructed by ATC. If you need a long landing, just advise. Approval would depend on traffic volume. AIM 4-3-20a
· After clearing the runway you landed on, hold and obtain taxi clearance. Same as taxiing to a runway, you must obtain a clearance from ground control after exiting a runway. AIM 4-3-20c, d; 4-3-18d(3)
· If you have questions, just ask. ATC must know what you want to do before they can properly carry out their control duties. AIM 4-2-1b

Continues on Page 4d

Page d3 Talking Using the ATC System

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How to Talk Airplane Return to whittsflying Home Page

Ground Radio Talk Is Important

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How to Talk Airplane
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